
Class. P N 52% 

Book iii^ . 



A 



* 



HAND-BOOK 



MODERN EUROPEAN LITERATURE. 



■ 
USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE FAMILIES. 



BY 

MRS. FOSTER 



PHILADELPHIA: 
LEA AND BLANCHARD 

I860. 



» i ■• 



PHILADELPHIA: 
T. K, AND F. G. COLLINS, FRINTERS. 



TO 

MISS ANNA FREDERICA BARTON, 

OF BORDEAUX, 

&l)i<3 little toork 

is, 

WITH SENTIMENTS OF RESPECT AND GRATITUDE 

TOWARDS HER BENEVOLENT AND ENLIGHTENED PARENTS, 

AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED, 

BY HER INSTRUCTRESS, 

M. E. F. 



PREFACE 



The want of a work of this kind must have been very 
generally felt; and, in offering it to the public, the com- 
piler's earnest wish is to spare the literary student some of 
those long hours of research which so painfully retard his 
progress. 

Hitherto, the youth of both sexes have been too fre- 
quently left to make their entrance into society almost 
completely ignorant of that subject of conversation which 
forms its most general topic and its greatest charm — Lite- 
rature. They may have gained the honors of all their 
classes in history, geography, &c. &c, yet their first steps 
into the world have brought disappointment and humilia- 
tion. They find, in fact, that they have another education 
to commence, and without a guide to help them through the 
vast multitude of writers who are the boast and ornament 
of every country. To the young, therefore, a publication 
of this sort can hardly fail to be useful; since, if compiled 
with any share of judgment, it at'once unites precept with 
example — shows them what is excellent, and informs them 



VI PREFACE. 

why it is so. It has been the compiler's aim to comprise 
as much as possible in the smallest compass; and she begs 
leave to express a hope that, while this work may be found 
to contain sufficient information respecting the leading 
names in European Literature to satisfy casual consulta- 
tion, it may serve at once as a guide and stimulus to more 
minute and extensive investigations. 



CONTENTS 











Page 


Italian Literature . . . . . .16 


Spanish Literature 








44 


Portuguese Literature 








. 72 


German Literature 








. 83 


French Literature 








. Ill 


British Literature 








. 144 


Polish Literature 








. 204 


Hungarian Literature 








. 225 


Dutch Literature 








. 227 


Danish Literature 








. 246 


Swedish Literature 








. 258 


Russian Literature 








. 266 


Index 








. 277 



HAND-BOOK 



MODERN EUROPEAN LITERATURE 



INTRODUCTION. 



Asia, tlie cradle of mankind, was also the cradle of letters. 

From time immemorial the Indians and the Chinese possessed 
great poets and philosophers; and it is from Asia that the Egypt- 
ians are said to have gathered their laws, philosophy, and arts. 

The Persians, Medes, Assyrians, and Phoenicians had, without 
doubt, a rich and brilliant literature, lost to us chiefly by the burn- 
ing of the Alexandrian library. 

The Greeks, who had received from Asia, or from their mother- 
country Egypt, the traditions of the arts, carried them to the highest 
perfection. Time has not been able to destroy the fine works of 
their poets and their historians; they are still the admiration of the 
civilized world. When Greece was conquered by the Romans, her 
taste for letters was carried to Rome, and Italy soon was in posses- 
sion of a literature which rivaled in some degree that of the parent 
source. 

Then came the barbarous ages of the Celts and the Iberians; 
but the Druids kept alive by their bards a taste for the productions 
of genius even amongst the most uncultivated people. 

After these, we meet with the "Edda," a production of the Scan- 
2 



14 EUROPEAN LITERATURE. 

dinavian nations, similar to the " Ossian" of the Scotch and Irish : 
and these works bring us down to the literature of the early Middle 
Ages, when, after the invasion of the Roman empire by the northern 
nations, new languages had been formed by amalgamation and cor- 
ruption. 

The Provencal tongue is the best known of this period, and its 
poets spread far their reputation; while, at the same time, the Arabs, 
having stretched their empire along the north of Africa and through 
Spain to the foot of the Pyrenees, looked with disdain upon the 
people of the west. [Bagdad and the south of Spain had become 
the centres of their civilization and of their literature; and even in 
Persia and India poetry and the fine arts were more assiduously 
cultivated than in Europe. 

Meanwhile, the literature of Eastern Europe was overpowered and 
choked by the contentions of theologists. Men are poets before they 
are philosophers; they feel with sensibility, and describe with force, 
when they have made but little progress in investigation or reason- 
ing: the age of Homer and of Hesiod long preceded that of 
Socrates. But religious contests embroiled at an early period the 
minds of our ancestors; and, instead of the poetical productions 
usual in an age of powerful emotion and unfettered restraint, the 
literature of this period was almost entirely devoted to the squabbles 
of theology and metaphysics. The presumption of man quickly 
added to the simple and sublime doctrines of Christianity the theo- 
ries of a vain philosophy, wrapt up in mysteries and idle questions, 
which the self-directed faculties of man are unequal to resolve. 

The scholastic theology, with its infinite train of bold disquisi- 
tions and subtle distinctions, was the first production of the spirit 
of inquiry after it began to resume some degree of vigor and activity 
in Europe. Misled by the acute and inquisitive Greeks in the 
Eastern Empire, and by the Arabian sages in Spain and Africa, the 
philosophers who first applied to science were involved in a maze of 
intricate inquiries, produced by the refined theology of the one and 
the frivolous subtlety of the others. Invention and art were fet- 
tered by authority, and the force of genius was spent in speculations 
at once visionary and difficult to comprehend. 

Still, there was a novelty in these ill- directed pursuits which 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

rsed and interested the human mind. Schools were opened in 
y cathedral and almost in every monastery of note ; colleges 
and universities were erected; corporations were founded; regular 
courses of study planned; academical titles and honors invented; 
and distinction in the schools led not only to reputation, but to 
social rank and eminence. 

In all these efforts to advance the human mind, there was, how- 
ever, one great imperfection which prevented their general utility — 
the use of the Latin tongue. The languages of Europe were con- 
sidered barbarous from the subversion of the Roman empire till the 
beginning of the sixteenth century. They were destitute of elegance 
and of force, and even of perspicuity; and no attempt had been 
made to improve or polish them. 

The Latin tongue was consecrated by the church to religion; and 
custom, with authority scarce less sacred, had appropriated it to 
literature. All the sciences cultivated in the twelfth, thirteenth, 
and fourteenth centuries, were taught in Latin; all books were 
written also in that language: thus it was only a circumscribed 
number of individuals who could penetrate into the temple of 
knowledge. 

The taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 served to 
advance the progress of letters ; when the learned men of Greece 
were forced to seek shelter in Italy and Germany. 

The important discovery of printing also immensely facilitated 
this progress; and, in the time of Pope Leo X. in Italy, of John 
III. in Portugal, of Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain, of Francis I. 
in France, of Charles V. in Germany, and of Elizabeth in England, 
Europe seemed to spring up from its long sleep of the Dark Ages, 
when all learning had been confined to the cloister and the church : 
the love of literature became universal : and mankind viewed with 
astonishment their own extent of talent and immense power of 
mental enjoyment. 

There are four ages particularly marked as those in which there 
was a great development of the arts. The first is that of Philip of 
Macedon and Alexander the Great; the second is that of Augustus 
Caesar; the third is that which followed the taking of Constantino- 
ple by Mahomet II. ; and the fourth age is generally considered 



16 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

that of Louis XIV. and our Queen Anne. Of all countries in 
modern times, it is Italy in which a national literature first "began 
to flourish : the great poet Dante, early in the fourteenth century, 
used and polished his mother-tongue, and was the first distinguished 
native writer in Europe. Hence, in my notices of European litera- 
ture, I commence with that of Italy. 



THE LITERATURE OF ITALY. 

The numerous divisions of Italy into kingdoms and principalities 
is the chief cause of the Latin tongue dying away among the various 
dialects of its people. In the twelfth century, Italian was ivritten; 
hitherto, it had only been a spoken tongue : none but the learned 
wrote in Latin, while those who wished for a more extensive audience 
wrote in Italian. 

The kings of Sicily were among the first encouragers of this 
dialect; and, having invited the Troubadours to their court, songs and 
ballads in the style of those poets of Provence speedily sprang up. 

When Charles of Anjou, Count of Provence, became King of 
Naples, he naturally propagated the amusements of his country: 
the Italians imitated the Provencals; and at the end of the twelfth 
century Italy had a dawning of literature in these poems. The 
Rappresentazioni — Mysteries, or Sacred Dramas, as they were 
called — common at this period,. were compositions of little merit. 
Zeno says they were written in a tame, low style, without skill or 
grace. 

After Alcamo, JDrusi, Falcaccliiero, and Vemacia, we meet with 
a more correct language. 

An inscription in the cathedral of Ferrara, dated 1135, is said to 
be the oldest composition in Italian verse. St TJwmas Aquinas 
was famed for his knowledge; his theological opinions gave rise to 
a sect called TJiomists. 

Spinello and Malespini were historians of the thirteenth century; 
Guinicelli and Ghislieri were poets : and we meet also with the 
names of Guitone, Brunetti, Cavalcanti, and Fra-Jacopone, but 
their works are little known, except " The Treasure" of Brunetti. 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 17 

The Venetian, Marco Polo, traveled into the interior of Asia 
about this time, and on his return published his travels, which were 
long regarded as fabulous exaggerations, but have since been fully 
authenticated. Ricobaldo and Pepius wrote at this period. Both 
mention the celebrated Michael Scott of the same age. 

Early in the fourteenth century, the great poet Dante appeared. 
He did not take up his pen till of mature age. Being a man of 
strong feelings, he had entered warmly into the political divisions 
of his country. Florence was torn with contentions; the G-uelfs 
and Grhibelins had created a civil war ; Dante was banished, and, 
after wandering from city to city without a permanent asylum, he 
fixed upon Ravenna for his residence, where he wrote the poem 
which has given so much glory to his name. 

In the "Divina Comedia" of Dante, it is easy to trace the political 
sentiments of the author; — his admiration and hatred are not dis- 
guised : and hence his work is at once a singular monument of the 
profound sensitiveness of the writer, and a valuable historical record 
of the deeds of his compatriots. Upon this is based the whole 
movement of his poem ; — the Infernal Regions ("Inferno"), Pur- 
gatory ("Purgatorio"), and Paradise ("Paradise"), are peopled 
with the spirits of those whom the love and hatred of Dante had 
admired or condemned on earth. The poet's brilliant imagination 
has, however, added a superstructure of great sublimity, occasional 
grace, and constant novelty. 

By a series of allegorical representations, Dante conducts us 
through the three stages of human existence. In the "Inferno," 
we witness the misery of sin; in the "Purgatorio," the struggles 
of virtue ; and those who have surmounted the temptations of this 
world, and begun to taste the pleasures of the next, are described 
as enjoying that peace of mind which is imaged by the terrestrial 
"Paradise" of Dante. 

This part of the poem displays, in a surprising manner, the 
exalted energy of the poet's persuasion, that it was possible, by 
purity of life and mind, for man to hold communion with his Maker. 
Hence he combats the fallacy that we are of necessity bound down 
to earth; and vindicates our prerogative of soaring upwards, by 
declaring that, did we not allow ourselves to be acted upon by false 

2* 



18 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

pleasures, our tendency would be to a union with Him "in whom 
we live, and move, and have our being." Dante's resource in words 
is astonishing; he seizes on Greek, Latin, Oriental tongues, Ger- 
man, Provencal, the Langue d'Oil, and even the Anglo-Saxon (a 
colony having settled, says Muratori, in Calabria in the eleventh 
century). So confident is Mr. Bruce Whyte of the power of these 
languages in the interpretation of Dante, that he asserts, " Every 
obscurity in the Divina Comedia can be cleared up by the Welsh, 
or Bas-Breton." This is only because they were parts of that 
mother-tongue which produced the Armorican, or Romanic dialect. 

Besides this magnificent poem of the " Divina Comedia/' Dante 
wrote several works in prose : u La Vita Nuova," a " Treatise on 
Monarchy," " Eloquence," and " The Banquet." 

At this period, the unhappy Cecco wrote a poem against Dante; 
and, as the Inquisition fancied it was a criticism against their insti- 
tutions, the poet was burnt alive. 

There arose, at this period, also, several imitators of Dante, as 
Uherti and Frezzi; who were the best. Mussato wrote " The 
Tyrant of Padua," and " Achilles ;" the first tragedies of modern 
literature. Cino was a lyric poet of this period, celebrated by 
Dante, and imitated by Petrarch. 

The fame of Petrarch followed closely on that of Dante ; and 
his age was distinguished by general intellectual activity. 

Petrarch introduced a liberal, profound, and elegant scholarship ; 
and communicated to his countrymen that enthusiasm for the litera- 
ture, the history, and antiquities of Borne which so much occupied 
his own heart. 

From this time the admiration of learning and genius became 
almost an idolatry among the people of Italy. Kings and republics, 
cardinals and doges, vied with one another in flattering and honoring 
Petrarch; embassies from rival states solicited the honor of his in- 
structions; his coronation occupied the court of Naples and the 
people of Rome as much as the most important political transaction 
could have done. 

To collect books and antiquities, to found professorships and col- 
leges, became universal among the great. The spirit of literary 
research allied itself also to that of commercial enterprise. Every 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 19 

place to which the merchants of Florence extended their gigantic 
traffic ; from the bazaars of the Tigris to the monasteries of the Clyde, 
was ransacked for medals and manuscripts. 

Petrarch was exceedingly ambitious of literary fame; it was his 
Latin poems which procured him the honor of being crowned pub- 
licly at Rome; but these are all faded away, and his great fame 
rests on the graceful and varied sonnets which he addressed to the 
beautiful Laura de Sade. The poem of " Africa, or the Punic 
Wars/' is tedious and indifferent. 

Andrea Dandolo wrote the " Chronicles of Venice till 1343." 
Villani wrote " The History of Florence from its Foundation ;" 
which was continued by his brother, Matteo, whose son, Filippo, 
still further extended it. Bartolo was a famous jurisconsult of this 
period. His chief works are entitled " The Guelfs and Ghibelins," 
" Tyranny," and " Administrations of the Republic." Pastrengo 
wrote a " Dictionary of Illustrious Men." 

Boccacio studied the classical writers of Greece : but his Latin 
works are hasty, crude, and ill-informed. He wrote an epic poem, 
called " The Thesead." But it is not his verse which has perpetu- 
ated his name for so many centuries; it is his harmonious prose, 
the animation of his language, and the joyousness of his imagina- 
tion. This gayety is, however, frequently licentious; and his work, 
entitled " The Decameron," is rarely seen in a lady's library; but 
selections of his best tales are published. 

Sacclietti followed Boccacio; but his stories, entitled " The Youth 
of Florence," are indifferent by the side of his predecessor's works. 
These authors are called by the Italians the Trecentisti, or men of 
the thirteenth century, because they took their origin at this time; 
and after their brilliant age there was considerable languor in the 
literature of their country. 

Giovanni Fiorentino, called also Pecorone, wrote "II Pecorone," 
a collection of tales. Pandolfini wrote a treatise, entitled " Go- 
vernment of the Family." JVami, surnamed BiircMello, was the 
inventor of the verse called burlesque. 

Poliziano is first known to us as the tutor of the family of the 
Medici. Cosmo de Medici had liberally encouraged science and 
literature; and his sons grew up among men of the finest talents. 



20 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

The Medici had so extended their mercantile pursuits, that they 
took the rank of princes from their riches; and Florence became, 
through them, the centre of learning in Italy. Poliziano was a 
distinguished Latin and Italian poet of the age. A late Italian 
author (Foscolo) quotes some of his verses, as equal to anything 
ever written in that language. Benedetto Accolti had dedicated to 
Piero de Medici, the son of Cosmo, and father of Lorenzo, his 
" History of the Wars of the Christians and the Turks." His son 
Bernardo Accolti wrote the first drama, called " Virginia." Ber- 
nardo Cenini was the first Florentine printer. Chrysolaras, a 
noble Greek, first taught that language in Florence, and is called 
the father of modern classical learning. Luigi Pulci lived also at 
Florence at this time, and is the author of the well-known poem of 
"Morgante Maggiore:" he is considered the last of the old ro- 
mancers, and the first of the Italian epic writers : his brother Luca 
wrote " II Ciraffa Calvaneo," a heroic poem, and others. 

Valla wrote "Fables." Manetti left many valuable works; the 
chief of them are "A History of the Literature of Florence," and a 
"Life of Pope Nicholas V." Cambiatore was crowned as a poet 
in 1430. Twelve years after, Eneas Sylva was crowned by the 
Emperor Frederick III. ; and a few years later Panormita received 
the same honor from the hands of the Emperor Sigismond. 

The three blind poets named Bello, the two Brandolini, Antonio 
Alamanni, Filelfo, and Bellinconi, have all received honorable men- 
tion from their cotemporaries for poetic talent. Among the prose 
writers of this period, we find Pope Pius II, as author of " Com- 
mentaries' 7 on the history of his time. Platina wrote "The Lives 
of the Popes," and "The History of Mantua." Giustiniana wrote 
a "History of Venice." Masuccio wrote tales. 

Meantime, as the nations of Europe had begun to feel their 
own strength, they gradually threw off the power of the Pope ; and 
when he could no longer maintain his authority, he endeavored to 
reserve at least a confirmatory right in each kingdom. The sanction 
of the Pope not being a matter of indifference to subordinate sove- 
reigns, he delegated to them his power on easy conditions, by in- 
vesting them with the title of Vicars of the Church. It was thus 
the family of Este obtained the dominion of Ferrara : thus the cities 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 21 

of Rimini and Cesena were held by the family of Malatesta; Faenza 
and Imola by the Manfredi; and many other cities and provinces 
became subject in the same way to petty sovereigns, who governed 
with despotic authority, as supported by the Pope : but their dissen- 
sions and family feuds rendered this fertile country the theatre of 
rapine and of bloodshed; and from this cause the literature of Italy 
suffered frequent interruptions. 

It is as well to remark that, as many authors wrote in Latin at 
this period, they assumed a suitable name, and it is therefore some- 
what difficult to trace the original. Thus, Filippo Buonacorso called 
himself Callimaclius Experiens, and is celebrated for his " History 
of the Affairs of Hungary." Poggio Bracciolini, a secretary of 
several of the Popes, discovered the works of Quintilian, and was a 
writer of great research. Indeed, the early part of the fifteenth 
century was generally distinguished by a warm admiration of the 
ancients, and was followed by the natural desire of infusing their 
beauties into the native tongue. Cantalicio, Braccio, Augurelli, all 
cultivated Latin poetry with considerable success. Folengi was the 
inventor of Macaronic poetry. The effort which Poliziano had made 
to restore a just appreciation of the ancients, aided by Pontano and 
Janazzero, was rewarded by such productions as those of Fracastoro, 
Vida, Naugerio, and Flaminio ; "in whom," says Roscoe, "the 
great poets of the Augustan age seem once more to be revived." 
Another immense step in the progress of mental light which was 
beaming over Italy was the free examination of the absurd preten- 
sions of judicial astrology. Pico of Mirandola was one of the first 
who entered the lists against this formidable adversary of real know- 
ledge, in his work "Adversus Astrologos," published at Venice 
1498. Pico's most remarkable work was "De Ente et Uno." 
Nicoli, a citizen of Florence, devoted his entire fortune to the col- 
lection of Greek and Latin manuscripts; and thus became the 
founder of the library of St. Marco. 

At Naples, the King Alphonso had used every exertion to follow 
the steps of Cosmo de Medici, from whom he had received the wel- 
come gift of a rich manuscript of Livy. An illustrious band of 
scholars formed the Academy of Pontano. Pontano was celebrated 
both for prose and verse ; he labored with assiduity and success in 



22 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

the improvement of his native tongue. This was all at once deemed 
so important a subject, that Messala wrote an entire volume on the 
letter s. Pontano's most remarkable work is a satire called " The 
Ass." Alamanni was also a poet of this age; but, having conspired 
against the Medici, he was obliged to fly, and found protection from 
the accomplished monarch Francis I. of France. His best work is 
"La Coltivazione," in the style of Virgil's Greorgics. Sanazzaro 
is noted for his graceful sonnets, and for a poem called "Arcadia." 
Casa was an elegant prosaist. 

After Florence and Naples, Ferrara was distinguished for its pro- 
tection of the Literati. DuJce Hercules, of Este, the reigning prince, 
translated dramas from the Latin, that he might have them acted 
in his own palace. And here we must first mention the remarkable 
and unfortunate Savonarola, whose powerful pen was employed to 
support the truths of the Gospel. Riva and Bigi were well known 
at Ferrara; and the two Strozzis, father and son, would alone have 
been sufficient to distinguish that city. It was, however, the poet 
Boiardo who gave it its greatest celebrity; his remarkable poem of 
"Orlando Innamorato" bears evidence of a fine imagination, and is 
imbued with great vivacity of coloring. At the same time, a young 
man named Ariosto had excited the attention of Prince Hercules 
of Este, by having dramatized the story of "Thisbe;" but his 
maturer works must be noticed later. 

At Mantua, Duke G-onzaghi had adopted the general passion for 
letters. In 1433, the fable of Orpheus, dramatized by Poliziano, 
was acted as a pastoral tragedy; and the Montefeltri, dukes of Ur- 
bino, outvied the rest of Italy by the magnificence with which their 
romantic palace was constructed, and furnished with rare and splendid 
articles. But the pride of Federigo of Urbino was his copious and 
superb collection of books, many of which were adorned with massy 
ornaments of gold and silver, as typical of their interior excellence. 
The son of this prince was not only a patron of learning, but a 
practical and accurate scholar. The learned Pietro Bembo has de- 
voted a considerable tract to the celebration of his merits; and 
Castiylione has honored his memory with an eulogium which will 
be as lasting as the language in which it is written. Castiolione' 's 
best work is entitled "II Corfcegiano." 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 23 

The court of Milan, under Prince Lodovico Sforza, was not be- 
hind the rest in its patronage of literature. Beccari had written 
his pastoral of "Sagrifizio." Cornazzano produced his poem "De 
Re Militari," and his " Vita della Beata Vergine :" his lyrics are 
excellent, and so are also his sonnets. Achilline wrote pastorals; 
Gasparo Visconti "rivaled Petrarch/' says Tiraboschi. Freyoso 
wrote his " Cerva Biancaj" and the industrious Donato Bossi shone 
as historian. Here also appeared the accomplished Leonardo da 
Vinci) who was admired as painter, sculptor, poet, musician, archi- 
tect, and geometrician. 

Nor must we forget that Venice was celebrated for its knot of 
classical scholars, drawn together by the persevering Aldo Manuzio, 
a man of great learning and unwearied diligence, who established a 
printing press, and devoted his life to the producing of correct copies 
of the eminent Greek and Latin authors. Works from the Aldine 
press are highly valued down to the present time. Aldo's first work 
was the "Hero and Leander" of Musaeus, printed in 1494. 

The education of Lorenzo de Medici, reigning prince of Florence, 
had prepared Italy to look for an eminent protector of learning. 
He had all the fancy and taste of a poet, and has left us many very 
beautiful productions. Roscoe, speaking of Lorenzo, says that he 
led the way in some of the most valuable species of poetic composi- 
tion, and some of his productions stand unrivaled among those of 
his countrymen. The riches of his family had introduced an abund- 
ance, a luxury and refinement, unexampled in the annals of man- 
kind. Instead of any longer contending for power, the princes of 
Italy attempted to rival each other in taste, in splendor, and elegant 
accomplishments. It was considered essential to their grandeur to 
give their household establishments a literary character. Hence 
their palaces became a kind of polite academy, in which the nobility 
of both sexes found a constant exercise for their intellectual talents : 
courage, rank, and beauty did not hesitate to associate with learn- 
ing and wit, though these might be accompanied with poverty. Lo- 
renzo was at once a generous patron of Literati, and a competent 
judge of their works. He was an earnest supporter of the use of 
brie own tongue, at the same time that he assisted numerous Latin 
writers. There is a striking, though unpleasing, feature of the fif- 



24 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

teenth century in tlie violent discussions among the learned men of 
this country; thus, Besarion and George of Trebisond, both of whom 
had sought refuge in Italy after Mahomet the Second's taking of 
Constantinople, Fielfo and Poggio, Poggio and Valla, Nicolo Nicoli 
and Peretti, Poliziano and Scala, were in perpetual disputes, and 
frequently wrote with great acrimony. Meanwhile, Pontano had 
published his " Art of Writing/' and Brandolini his " Art of Speak- 
ing;" while Landino gave to the world his fine translation of Pliny's 
Natural History. 

Nicolo Corregio was a dramatic poet. JSpagnwoM of Mantua 
wrote a "Critique against Women." Verrini of Florence wrote 
" Sacred Poetry." Martelli wrote his tragedy of "Tullia," and 
some popular poems. Navegero of Venice was celebrated for his 
a Epigrams." Allori is the name of two brothers distinguished for 
their burlesque poems. Brocardo was a lyric poet of eminence, 
and Tarsia shared his renown in the same species of writing. 
Among the prose works of the sixteenth century, we find Sabbellico' s 
" History of Venice," Bonfadw's "History of Genoa," and Lillio 
Giraldi's "History of the Greek and Latin Poets." Secclii wrote 
comedies. Firenzuola, Strajiazola, and Porto are among the best 
writers of tales, at this time. 

War now changed the face of society in Italy. Charles VIII. 
of France overran the country; and the literature of this period is 
constantly tinctured with sentiments which would naturally arise 
on such an event. Thus Sanazzaro wrote those beautiful verses 
which celebrate the life of Alphonso of Naples, and adverts to many 
circumstances of the times. The Medici were driven from their 
city by popular resentment, and were no sooner gone than their 
palace was plundered. The exquisite gardens, formed by Lorenzo 
the Magnificent as a repository for the fine remains of antiquity in 
sculpture, were completely destroyed, to the everlasting regret of 
every lover of art. A period of eighty years had, however, spread 
a brilliancy over the literary and artistic talents of the Italians 
which will always throw a halo round their name. Charles VIIL, 
having reached Naples, and made good his claim to the crown, 
found that his return to France was impeded by the combined 
princes of the north. The monarch was glad to purchase his per- 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 25 

sonai safety by giving back all that he had won : but no retribution 
could repair the evils his presence had occasioned. The extremely 
dissolute manners of the French had introduced a similar spirit 
into Italy, which was ingrafted on the naturally strong passions of 
her people, and perpetually evinced in their internal family dissen- 
sions. It has been said, that nothing in the history of mankind has 
ever surpassed the infuriate hatred of party spirit at this epoch : 
the feeling disfigures their literature ; for a considerable time all 
is weak, petty, worldly; genius was absorbed by earthly passions. 

Louis XII., of France, was more successful in Italy than his pre- 
decessor: he obtained Naples, and gave it to Ferdinand the Ca- 
tholic. Here our historical notices must conclude. The literature 
of Italy now merges into one mass; her kingdoms were torn with 
such perpetual strife, that her authors could scarcely struggle into 
sight. Yet we must pause, and look back for an instant on the 
intellectual splendor which had reigned for a time : " With 
peculiar pleasure every cultivated mind must repose on the fair, the 
happy, the glorious Florence; on the halls which rang with the 
mirth of Pulci; the cell where twinkled the midnight lamp of 
Poliziano; the statues on which the young eye of Michael Angelo 
gazed with a kindred inspiration ; the gardens in which the elegant 
and intellectual Lorenzo meditated some sparkling song for the May- 
day dance of the Etruscan virgins. Alas, for the beautiful city ! 
for the wit and the learning, the genius and the love ! From the 
time Sforza called in the aid of the French, the star of Italy was 
clouded ; her day of glory gone : slaughter and famine, infamy and 
despair, ran riot in the land." 

Pope Leo X., a son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, rendered Rome 
the place of attraction for all learned and accomplished men. 
Among these, Michael Angelo was the most conspicuous ; and even 
in literature has left touches of exquisite beauty, as great, though 
not so numerous, as those of the pencil and the chisel : his sonnets 
are much admired. 

Ariosto was by no means so highly appreciated as his great co- 
temporary above noticed. Ariosto' s most celebrated work is the 
" Orlando Furioso," founded on the before-named poem of Boiardo : 
its chief story (for it is a series of separate tales) is founded on 



26 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

that of Roland, one of the knights called Palladins by Charle- 
magne. The poet is varied in his style, his pictures, and his 
characters; he has a happy mixture of the serious and the pleasant, 
the familiar and the sublime, the graceful and the terrible. Yida 
was another star of the court of Leo X. : his chief poem is " The 
Art of Poetry." 

The applause bestowed on those who purified and adorned the 
Italian tongue at this period must not be confined to one sex only. 
At no period of society have the female admirers of literature 
proved themselves more formidable rivals to the lords of the crea- 
tion than at that of which we are now speaking. Cassandra 
Fidelis is placed among the most learned characters of the age. 
Alessandra Scala holds nearly the same distinguished place ; while 
Cecca of Sienna is called by Poliziano u a tenth muse." Vittoria 
Colonna, Marchioness of Pescara, has sung the praises of her hus- 
band (the brave soldier who won the battle of Pavia for Charles V. 
of Germany) in verses as sweet and graceful as either those of 
Petrarch or Ariosto. Veronica Gambara, Countess of Correggio, 
has not left so many elegant productions as her friend ; but there 
are two of her poems which are considered superior to Vittoria' s 
best : one is addressed to the rival monarchs, Charles V. of Ger- 
many, and Francis I. of France, imploring them to give peace to 
Italy ; the other was composed on revisiting her native city Brescia 
after the death of her husband. 

There is another remarkable woman of this period whom we must 
name, were it only with a sister spirit of kindness to help to rescue 
her name from infamy. By some she has been characterized as 
possessing few qualities that command respect, while by others she 
was extolled for superior virtues, and as an ardent patroness of in- 
tellectual labor. Lucrezia Borgia, the accomplished Marchioness 
of Ferrara, was herself a poetess, and in correspondence with some 
of the finest minds of her age; — a taste which ill agrees with the 
terrible accusations of vice from the pen of Guicciardini, the his- 
torian of her time. Koscoe has considered her position in society 
of such importance, that he has dedicated an entire chapter to the 
clearing of her name. This he has done so well that the question 
ought to be deemed settled. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 27 

At this period, Berni introduced a burlesque style, "which from 
him is called Poesia Bernesca. Of this it is difficult to convey an 
adequate idea, as its excellence consists rather in simplicity of diction, 
and the sweetness of the Tuscan dialect, than in any sterling wit 
or vigorous sentiment which bears to be transferred into another 
language. Of this style are the works of Bino and Mauro. "We 
are also told that Oasa has exaggerated this style in representations 
of the feelings and ideas of the lower classes, but carrying them to 
positive coarseness and indelicacy. Berni himself is not entirely 
free from this reproach. 

Berni' s great work was the version of Boiardo's " Orlando In- 
namorato;" and he has added so much to it, that it is looked upon 
as more his than Boiardo's. It is eminently distinguished for the 
wit of its author, and the bold and dexterous use of language and 
rhythm. Lord Byron has admirably imitated Berni in more than 
one of his poems. 

The Italian poets were early acquainted with the works of the 
ancients, to whose taste they yielded, and imbibed no small portion 
of their spirit. Thus, Trissino composed his tragedy of " Sofonisba" 
in blank verse, or versi sciolti, which is certainly far better calcu- 
lated for serious subjects than rhyme in any form. Hucettai, 
nephew of Leo X., composed his tragedy of "Orestes," also, in 
blank verse : this is considered one of the most beautiful pieces that 
any author, ancient or modern, has adapted to theatrical representa- 
tion. Trissoni also wrote " Italy delivered from the Groths," and 
" The Triumphs of Belisarius in Italy." The Scaligers, father and 
son, were remarkable critics of this age. 

The academy of Crusca at Borne was one of those establishments 
which greatly help the progress of letters. 

Philosophy was taught by the writings of Mamiani Pamjponaccio, 
Telesio, and Campanella; while among the distinguished Latinists 
are found Pietro Bembo and Arsilli as poets, Paulo Giovio and 
Flaminio as historians. 

The "Mambriano" of Bello belongs to this age, and the historians 
Summonte, Bonato, and Rucellai: the latter is often styled the 
modern Sallust. Here also we must place the celebrated GvAcciar- 



28 ITALIAN LITERATUKE. 

dini, whose " History of Italy" extends from the years 1494 to 
1532. These wrote in Italian. 

A very remarkable work appeared in the political world at this 
moment ; it was the " Principe" of 31acliiavelli, but its merits have 
been so variously canvassed, that it is difficult to give a general idea 
of it. This profound statesman lived in times which resembled a 
combat of wild beasts, in which the strongest and most ferocious 
destroys the rest : it was for such times he wrote, — when an act of 
dexterous perfidy might be one of patriotic self-devotion, and call 
forth the same degree and the same kind of respectful admiration. 
He had also a keen sense of the ridiculous, and he writes with a 
peculiar irony, frequently misinterpreted : and, however dishonorable 
his ideas are, according to our present notions of politics, his works 
derive a peculiar interest from the mournful earnestness which he 
manifests whenever he touches on topics connected with the calami- 
ties of his beloved country. He despaired of the liberty of Flo- 
rence, and was anxious to support any government which might 
preserve her independence. As a poet, MacMavelli is not entitled 
to any high place; the "Decennali" are merely abstracts of the 
history of his own times in rhyme, on the model of Dante. His 
comedies deserve more attention; and the "Mandragola" is superior 
to the best of G-oldoni. MachiavelW s "History of Florence," 
written at the command of the Pope, is decidedly inaccurate, but 
penned with a freedom and impartiality which are highly commend- 
able. 

Nardiy Segni, Nerli, VarcM, and Adriani were spirited histo- 
rians, who followed the style of Machiavelli, and dared to detail 
facts and utter sentiments the most contrary to the interests of the 
princes of Italy, and even of the popes. 

There is another historian to be noticed at this time, Bernardo 
Davanzati; his "History of the Schism of England" is remark- 
able for its great clearness and conciseness. The Ferrari family 
were earnest supporters of literature : the elder was professor of 
politics and ethics at Padua and Milan. Francesco collected rare 
books; and his collection formed the base of the Ambrosian Library. 
Octavias was admired by Louis XIV., and was distinguished for 
his talents. Leonardo Aretino, from the severity of his satirical 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 29 

works, was called " The Scourge of Princes." He was so much 
dreaded that crowned heads coveted his friendship ; on which ac- 
count he caused a medal to be struck, on one side of which is his 
head, with this inscription: "The divine Aretino;" and on the 
other he is seated on a throne, receiving the oblation of princes. 
He is not otherwise deserving of notice, for his works are frequently 
gross and irreligious, especially his dramas. The brothers, Leon- 
ardo and Francesca Brnni, are called " The Aretines" from Arezzo, 
their native place. 

Vinciguerra wrote in the severe style of satire; and Ruzzante 
followed Berni in the most lively manner. 

In the latter half of the sixteenth century, we find, as poets of 
secondary merit, Beccuti, a writer of lyrics; Yincenzio Martelli, 
Lidgi Alamanni, Grazzini, Anguillara, poets of varied talents. 
Vida is distinguished above the crowd; but his works bear puerile 
titles, as " Silk-worms," " Chess," &c. Luigi Dolce imitated the 
ancients, and translated from them. Franco wrote in the popular 
style. Paved imitated iEsop. Tansillo followed Berni. Rota 
made the~first eclogue in Italian; Muzzio soon followed, and wrote 
thirty eclogues. Ongaro wrote the dramatic pastoral of " Alceo." 
Castelletti wrote " Amaryllis," and Beccari " The Sacrifice," both 
pastoral dramas. Costanza and Valvasone wrote minor poems. 

The next star of genius which shone over this intellectually 
favored country was the unhappy Torquato Tasso. He was born 
at Sorento, and was the son of Bernardo Tasso, himself a poet of no 
mean excellence. At twelve years old, the young Torquato was a 
prodigy of learning; at eighteen, he published his poem of Rinaldo; 
and, at twenty-two, he formed the design of his great work called 
" Jerusalem Delivered," under the patronage of the princes of Este. 
He had apartments in their palace at Ferrara. It was here that he 
received that impression of the beauties and virtues of Alphonso's 
sister, the Princess Leonora, which so greatly influenced Ms life. 
His aspirations were deemed presumptuous, and he was made to 
expiate his audacity in the cell of a lunatic asylum. In this dun- 
geon of misery, Tasso completed his exquisite poem of " Jerusalem 
Delivered." After seven years' imprisonment, he again entered the 
world ; and then wrote " Jerusalem Regained," which is considered 

3* 



80 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

Inferior to the former poem. Tasso is also renowned for his very 
elegant pastoral u Aminta;" and is esteemed a superior writer of 
prose, proved by his " Dialogues." 

The Academy of the Rozzi at Sienna encouraged satirical comedy, 
which was carried to considerable perfection in the " Calandria" of 
Cardinal Bihbiana. Muzio wrote his " Art of Poetry." A crowd 
of useful historians belong to this century, as Malvolti, Giannone, 
JBurcliardi) Bandellij Nerli, Fabroni, Grumello, Zebaldeo, JSagredo, 
Zomasi. The painter Vasari wrote his " Lives of Italian Painters, 
Sculptors, and Architects." 

Landi wrote romances, letters, and fables. Bandello wrote tales 
in the manner of Boccacio. Cinzio Giraldi, Granucci, and Erizzio 
were prolific writers of romances. Cavalcanti, a zealous republican, 
left divers works. Gianotti wrote " On the Eepublic of Venice." 
Giambidlari wrote " The History of Europe," " A Treatise on 
Letters," " Lessons on Purgatory," and other works. Castelvetro 
wrote " Commentaries on Petrarch." Varolii wrote a " History of 
Florence" (continued by Adriani), and was esteemed as a lyric 
poet. Caro wrote " Comedies" and " Letters." Lollio was re- 
markable as an orator, and wrote the pastoral drama of u Arethusa." 
Benvenuto Cellini was a celebrated artist, and left interesting 
" Memoirs" of his own life. Contili wrote comedies in prose, and 
various poems. Doni was one of the founders of the Peregrini 
Academy of Venice, and wrote " Philosophy of the Ancients," 
" Commentaries," and various other works. Corso wrote u On the 
Tuscan Dialect." Nannini wrote " The Life of G-uicciardini," and 
other works. Spei^oni wrote various " Dialogues." Telesio was 
the head of the school called after him Telesian, against the philo- 
sophy of Aristotle. Salviati was a critic, and wrote on the Deca- 
meron, on Tasso, &c. Costanza wrote " The History of the King- 
dom of Naples." Bargeo was a celebrated professor of literature 
at Pisa, and superintended the copying of manuscripts for Francis 
I.; he wrote a poem called "The Chase," and various "Letters" 
and " Essays." Paruta was an elegant writer of prose. His best 
works are "The War of Cyprus" and "A History of Venice." 
Mazzoni was a celebrated philosopher; he wrote a work entitled 
" The Triple Life of Man," and various other writings. The un- 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 31 

happy Giordano Bruno wrote comedies. He was burnt alive at 
Rome. 

These writers close the list of authors called by the Italians the 
cinque cento, or "men of the fifteenth century ;" and we now come 
to the sei centisti, or " sixteenth century rnen," who are, in fact, the 
men of the seventeenth century ; but who had their origin in the 
preceding century. 

A few words will suffice to paint the period which spread a veil 
of darkness upon the literature of Italy. " In wishing/' says Salfi, 
in his " History of Italy/' " to be revenged on the Protestants of 
Germany, the Roman Inquisition gave force to the despotism of 
Philip II. and of his successors/' 

At the beginning of the seventeenth century died Caporalli, a 
poet who wrote " Satires/' " The Voyage to Parnassus/' and other 
poems. Guistiniani imitated the (Edipus of Sophocles. Torelli 
wrote the tragedy of " Merope." Buonarelli wrote a pastoral, 
entitled " The Philosopher of Sciros." Porta wrote dramas ; he 
founded the Secret Society, and invented the camera obscura. Baldi 
was a mathematician and poet. He wrote the poem of " The De- 
luge," and another, entitled " Navigation." Vecclii wrote the first 
opera buffa, called " Amphiparnassus." Rinuccini wrote the operas 
of " Daphne" and " Eurydice." Marini figured as the head of the 
pastoral school, and wrote idyls, lyrics, and pastoral dramas. Chia- 
brero, wrote " Italy Delivered," and " The Ansaleida." LalU tra- 
vestied the Iliad. The unfortunate Ferrante Pallavicino was put 
to death at Avignon, and some of his works were prohibited : he 
wrote satires and farces; one of which is entitled "The Celestial 
Divorce." Buonarotti wrote " The Judgment of Paris," a dramatic 
pastoral. Dottori wrote a poem called " The Ass." 

A name, more celebrated in this age than any other, makes us for 
awhile forget the abasement and corruption into which were fallen 
the letters of Italy; it is that of Galileo. He was noted as an 
astronomer; but his mind was so richly stored, and his " Letters" 
so eloquent and elegant, that he ranks among the great authors of 
his time. It was Marini and his followers who chiefly contributed 
to the corruption of the Italian literature by their affected and over- 
ornamented style. Guarini was of this age, and, in some degree, 



32 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

escaped the bad taste of the times: his pastoral drama of the 
" Pastor Fido" has touches of considerable merit, exaggerated by the 
German critic Schlegel. Chiabrera was of a far better class : his 
odes and lyrics have great merit. Tassino, or Tassoni, as is va- 
riously written, wrote his mock heroic poem, called the " Secchia 
Rapita," or " Stolen Bucket," intended as a satire on the foolish 
motives of war between the Milanese and the Bolognese ; but it is 
Salvator Rosa who is distinguished in this weak age by his power- 
ful writings. Consulting his passions more than his head, this 
splendid painter poured forth his verses in the abundance of his 
teeming ideas, frequently regardless both of style and phrase. The 
" Satires" of Salvator are remarkable for their depth of thought 
and vigor of expression; and his works, whether of the pen or the 
pencil, were all in alliance with virtue and her cause. He was the 
first who struck the harp for liberty, and exposed the abuses in 
morals and in manners which result from despotism in government. 
In spite of every opposition, the writings of Salvator Rosa were 
read with avidity, and universally celebrated, even before they were 
printed. His political opinions, his philosophy, his taste, all belong 
to another age, and were splendid exceptions to the general tanie- 
ness and literary degradation of that in which he lived. Salvator 
is entitled the Juvenal of Italy. 

The historians Davila, Sar]?i, and Bentivoglio are also conspicu- 
ous. Davila' s " History of the Civil Wars of France," Sarjn's 
li History of the Council of Trent," and Bentivoglio' s " History of 
the Wars in Flanders," are standard works. There are several 
agreeable collections of letters, worthy attention, from the pens of 
Caro, Bernardo Tasso, Tolomei, Guidicione, Macliiavelli, Bembo, 
Torquato Tasso, Galileo, Bentivoglio, Ganganelli, Metastasio, Mag a- 
lotti, Algarotti, Gozzi, Baretti, &c. Caro, after being a successful 
ambassador more than once, amused himself by writing graceful 
poems, of which a canzone has always been celebrated : it is enti- 
tled " Yenite all ombra de J gran gigli d'oro." From the pen of 
Bernardo Tasso we have an epic poem, called " L' Amadigi." Tolo- 
mei wished and tried to introduce a stiff classical style into the 
poetry of his country, but failed : from his pen we have a dialogue 
called " Cesano," and various minor poems, besides seven books of 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 33 

letters. From Guidicionc we have " An Oration to the Republic 
of Lucca/' with divers poems. From the learned Bembo we have 
u A History of Venice/' " A Poem on the Death of his Brother/' 
and others. Ganganelli became the active friend of literature as 
Pope Clement XIV. Magalotti was a careful and graceful writer : 
his chief poetry consists of two volumes of anacreontics. Algarotti 
was celebrated for his taste in art : he was employed by Augustus 
III., King of Saxony, to describe and increase the Dresden Gallery. 
He wrote both prose and verse, but is somewhat affected. 

Among the prose writers of the seventeenth century, we must men- 
tion Ammirato, who wrote a "History of Florence," and "The 
Genealogy of the Noble Families of Naples." Boccalini was cele- 
brated as a satirist. He wrote " News from Parnassus," " The 
Political Touchstone," and other works. Beni was a critic of celeb- 
rity. He wrote "A Comparison of Homer, Virgil, and Tasso," 
with other works. The "Lessons and Academical "Works" of 
Toricelli is a useful collection. Loredano was a writer of romances. 
Buomattei wrote "Lessons on Dante," and other works. Cardinal 
Sforza Pallavicino wrote " The History of the Council of Trent," 
and several other works. JSfani wrote a "History of Venice." 
Baldinucci wrote " Notices on Drawing and Engraving." Bartoli, 
a Jesuit, wrote a "History of the Company of Jesus." Beverini 
and Segneri were celebrated preachers, who have left various reli- 
gious works. Francesco Redi was distinguished as a naturalist and 
poet. His chief work is entitled "Experiences." 

Towards the close of the seventeenth century, there was a pre- 
lude to a better order of things than had reigned for some years in 
the world of letters in Italy by the institution of two academies ; 
one was called the Academy of Arcadia, and commenced by the 
meeting of certain learned men at the dwelling of Christina, Queen 
of Sweden, at Rome; its founder was the learned Crescimbeni, a critic 
well known; the other was the Academy of Cinento, at Florence, 
for the propagation of physical knowledge. 

The opening of the eighteenth century was marked by an awak- 
ening of intellect. Filicaja contributed much to the improvement 
of taste; he wrote a fine poem on the "Siege of Vienna by the 
Turks." Then appeared Muratori's celebrated historical works ; 



34 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

and his "Delia Perfetta Poesia," one of the best works on criticism 
in the Italian language. Cardinal Bellarmino , s theological works 
attracted considerable attention. Zeno, Metastasio, and Maffei ap- 
peared as dramatic writers; Yico and Gravini in philosophy; Fru- 
goni in lyric poetry; and soon after them a brilliant list succeeds. 
Baretti appeared in criticism and philology ; Bettinelli, Denina y and 
Tirahoschi in history; AJ fieri in tragedy; Goldoni in comedy; Pas- 
seronim lyric poetry; and it may be observed of them that they 
were moral writers ; they did not bend the knee to the then fashion- 
able infidelity; they did not dishonor their pen to corrupt the hearts 
and destroy the best feelings of their countrymen. 

Menzini was a celebrated satirical writer and lyric poet. Marchetti 
translated Anacreon. Stampiglia wrote melodrames, and was the 
precursor of Zeno and Metastasio. Bellini wrote " Sonnets" and 
"Letters," but was especially celebrated as an anatomist. Fontanini 
wrote " The Library of Italian Eloquence." Genovesi wrote " Philo- 
sophical Meditations," a work which had great influence in his age. 
Lami was distinguished as a man of great learning; he wrote 
"Literary Stories," and poetry. 

Manfredi wrote poetry, but his especial talent lay in mathema- 
tics and astronomy. Yico gave to the world his " Moral Philoso- 
phy," and awakened thoughts of profound interest. Stellini pub- 
lished his work " On the Origin and Progress of Manners." The 
school of Marini lost its influence by degrees ; and the Italians be- 
came simple, natural, and true in their poetry. Guidi, Zappi, and 
Frugoni wrote good lyric poems. The "Adamo" of Campaillo 
was read with eagerness : Perfetti was crowned in the capitol, like 
Petrarch. Salandri became eminent as a poet; and Mattel versi- 
fied the Psalms very beautifully. "La Providenza" of Leonarducci, 
in forty-five cantos, was greatly extolled. Spolverini's "Coltiva- 
zione del Riso" was considered a chef-d' 'ceuvre of its kind; and then 
followed many comic writings; as the charming " Ricciardetto" of 
Fortiguerra; the "G-onella" of Becelli; and the humorous poems 
of Fagiuoli, Anderlini, Volar esso, and Mei. Bianchini wrote his 
"Universal History;" Giannone wrote a "History of Naples;" 
Mazzuclielli wrote " Literary and Biographical History." As 
writers of secondary eminence in the drama, we must name Pariati } 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 35 

Lazzarini, CTiiari, and Calsahigi. Algarotti employed his pen on 
criticism and the fine arts, while Riccoboni obtained no mean repu- 
tation in dramatic criticism and the drama, as well as in his "His- 
tory of the Italian Stage/' But we must pause awhile, to look 
more particularly on the very eminent dramatists of this century. 
Metastasio brought to perfection the didactic style. He wrote with 
the intention of his verse being set to music ; but, though admirable 
for this purpose, his delineations of passion as a dramatist are too 
much generalized to produce great effect on the reader. 3Ietastasio 
was sent for to the court of Vienna, and became preceptor to the 
unfortunate Queen of France, Marie Antoinette. At Vienna, he 
found the Italian Zeno enjoying the honors of poet-laureate, and 
these two amiable men lived in perfect harmony, producing a vast 
variety of dramas. 

Maffei had written the only regular tragedy known in Italy since 
many years; his "Merope" is esteemed a truly classical production. 

Goldoni, and his companion Gozzi, carried comedy to consider- 
able perfection. The former was of especial advantage in this par- 
ticular. Goldoni gave a completely different character to the 
comedy of Italy. Before his time, they had little more than ex- 
temporary exhibitions of the inhabitants of their different provinces ; 
occasionally a rich vein of humor would be found in the represent- 
atives of these country people; and this rendered the kind of 
amusement so long delightful to the Italian citizens. Arlechino 
was the clever fellow from Bergamo; Pulcinella was the impudent, 
self-satisfied servant from Naples; Pantalone was the good-natured, 
easy merchant from Venice ; the Dottore was the quack from the 
college of Bologna; G-elsomino was the beau from Kome; Brighella 
the rogue from Ferrara, and so forth through all the provinces. The 
actors who represented these characters, spoke only what their own 
minds suggested as belonging to them ; so that a player's individual 
wit and talent were easily perceived. Goldoni attached himself to 
one of these companies, and resolved to correct their laxity, but did 
not succeed without much opposition. At last, to adapt himself to 
all parties, and yet effect his purpose, Goldoni left his comedies only 
half regular in their plans; half serious, half burlesque in their 
sentiments; abounding in improbabilities, and often deficient in 



36 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

common information. Although he is intentionally moral, it is 
often hut a flimsy worldly morality. His comic talent is very great; 
he excels in ridiculing affectation, and fashionable vices ; and he has 
also admirably depicted the honest, noble character, persevering in 
its integrity, and evincing a good and ingenuous heart. 

Gozzi was the leader of a rival company of comedians. Gozzi 
disliked these innovations, and formed comedies of another sort, by 
engrafting sorcery and fairy ism upon the old Italian farce. He 
drew into his service, with great success, all the nursery stories of 
Venice, and rendered his pieces almost as attractive as those of 
Goldoni. Both still find their just value; Goldoni delights us with 
his wit, Gozzi and his fairies are yet enjoyed in the north of Italy. 
We must remark that the written comedy of the Italians is entitled 
the "Comedia di Carettere;" the other is called the "Comedia del 
Arte." 

It is singular that, at the same time, Opera, Comedy, Farce, and 
Tragedy should have been carried to the highest point which these 
compositions have ever reached in Italy. Metastasio, Goldoni, 
Gozzi, and Alfieri were either cotemporaries, or close successors. 

Alfieri, born in 1749, had conceived the noble idea of restoring 
tragedy to its proper dignity, by making it subservient to the in- 
terests of his country, hoping by its aid to awaken the sleeping and 
degenerate people. He discovered, however, that he was writing 
for the succeeding generation, rather than the one around him. In 
Alfieri's tragedies, the beauty of his diction, the intense interest 
excited by the passions of his chief characters, the terrific suspense 
in which he keeps us to the brink of the catastrophe, and the elo- 
quent and sublime descriptions he gives of the inward struggles, and 
secret workings of the heart, are admirable. He is accused of a 
too general harshness and want of tenderness. The play of " Said" 
is an exception to this remark; nothing can be more touching than 
the monarch's affecting remembrances of those days when, con- 
science free, he stood before the Great Supreme; and the pathetic 
idea of the old warrior, that the trumpet carried only tones of fear, 
now that his children were to be in the battle. The tender, faithful 
nature of David is also painted in the poet's best style. 

The theatre, which had long been considered as the school of 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 37 

intrigue, effeminacy, and servility, was, after the appearance of 
Aljieri's tragedies, regarded as the only nurse of mental vigor and 
public virtue. There was a grandeur in Aljieri's love of independ- 
ence which cannot be contemplated without a glow of admiration. 
His comedies and miscellaneous productions are considered by no 
means equal to his tragedies in point of talent : his translation of 
Sallust is looked upon as good, while that of Yirgil is poor and 
spiritless. 

The prose writers of the eighteenth century excite but little 
interest. Whenever reason and philosophy were the subjects of their 
labors, they could never rise to the rank of other nations, for their 
political thraldom had cast a damp on every intellect. In the works 
of their best writers on these topics, we find the authors stopping to 
discuss trite sophisms and common-place truths, of which all the rest 
of Europe had long been tired, but which are brought forward by 
them as ingenious and novel. 

Beccaria is celebrated for his work entitled " Crimes and their 
Punishments;" Filangieri for his " Science of Legislation." Pietro 
Verri published a "History of Milan;" and his brother Alexander 
the much-admired " Notti Roman e '/' — a work which brings us into 
the nineteenth century. 

The present age is abundantly rich in Italian talent. 

Monti is recognized as the first of their directly modern writers, 
although he often uses his pen with all the irregularity of an im- 
provisatore. His tragedies of " Caius Gracchus" and " Aristode- 
mus" are on the classical plan, and have great beauties; the latter 
is one of the most affecting of all Italian tragedies, and the author 
is thought to have excelled Alfieri in the harmony and poetical 
language of his composition. Monti has translated the Iliad, and 
this effort of his pen is looked upon as one of the finest specimens 
of Italian poetry. He has successfully imitated Dante in a poem 
entitled " Basvilliana ;" and rarely has the harp of Italy been struck 
by a bolder or more skillful hand. 

Cesarotti has very ably translated Ossian ; the beauties of which 
seem to have found a peculiarly appropriate conveyance in the sweet 
language of Italy. 

Barotti of Ferrara has written a didactic poem on physics. Bat- 
4 



38 ITALIAN LITERATURE, 

tacchi of Pisa wrote a poem entitled " The Net of Vulcan." Vianelli 
left several poems of different styles. Bandini is celebrated as a 
bibliographer, and has written " The Ages of Florentine Literature/' 
" Life and Letters of Americo Vespucci/' and other less important 
works. Alberti made an excellent Dictionary. Savioli of Bologna 
has written annals of that city. Signorelli of Naples has written 
on the " Revolution of the Two Sicilies/' Morelli was a distin- 
guished philologue. 

In the drama, we have to name Federici, Albergati, Armelli, and 
Carpani; in lyric poetry, Count Savioli, Lamberti, and Minzoni ; 
Bregolini attempted an epic, but did not rise into any distinguished 
reputation. Ceretti, Count Giovio, Rosetti, Mazza, Avellani, Lo- 
renzi, Arid, Count Leojpardi, and Vitorelli may be gratefully re- 
membered for their poesies, sentimental and graceful; while the 
lively Galfo, Bondi, and Count d'fflci excel in humor and epigram. 
As satirical poets, there are Signorelli, Bossi, and Zanoja. Fab- 
broni has written literary history, and biography ; Rovelli, Italian 
history; Manzi, history, philology, and translations from Lucian, 
&c. ; Rossmini, the " History of Milan •" and MazzaclielZi, on history 
and antiquities. Coletta has written a good " History of the King- 
dom of Naples." Soaves " Moral Philosophy" has decided admir- 
ers ; and his ideas on " Education" are wholesome and useful. Lanzi 
has succeeded in his " Storia Pittorica," and Mazza has cleverly 
translated some of our English minor poets. Romagnesi's " Moral 
and Political Philosophy," Moscati's "Philosophy," Bosselini's "Po- 
litical Economy," all breathe a tone suited to the wants of the age, 
and have been produced amid deep suffering in the political exist- 
ence of the much-harassed and oppressed Italy. There are writers 
of European celebrity among those of this century yet unmentioned. 
Manzoni has attracted universal attention by his power in tragedy, 
and in historical novels; " The Count of Carmagnola" is a very fine 
play; and "The Betrothed" is as remarkable a novel. Pariniia 
highly esteemed by his countrymen; Canto has written a clever 
essay on this poet and his age. Parini, in his poem called " The 
Day," has been compared to Cowper in his " Sofa," to Crabbe when 
he is most harmonious and tender, and to Pope in his " Rape of the 
Lock." The Countess Albrizzi, in her "Moral Portraits," has 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 39 

placed her amiable countryman Pindemonte at the head of them; 
religious without bigotry; independent in mind, yet contented in dis- 
position; learned and modest, warm-hearted in his feelings, but pure 
in his thoughts; indulgent and generous, calm and reflective, he 
combines all that the mind can wish for in his elegant compositions. 
His " Sermoni," or Discourses, are a mild satire conveyed in beauti- 
ful language. Pindemonte made great effort to give more variety 
and nature to historical plays, in Italy; but was severely handled by 
the critics of his country. XJgo Foscolo gave to the world a lovely 
specimen of Italian poetry in his exquisite little poem entitled " I 
Sepolcri." The subject was a law passed during the republican 
sway in the north of Italy, forbidding inscriptions over the tombs, 
or any sign of distinction or commemoration. The author addresses 
this poem to his distinguished cotemporary, the above-named Pin- 
demonte, who wrote a short one in reply, supporting Foscolo's argu- 
ment in condemning the unfeeling restriction. Foscolo's first work of 
eminence was a tragedy called " Tieste," which was represented at 
Naples; and the boldness of its language, and political allusions, 
added to the youth of its author, not only awakened the enthusiasm 
of the citizens in his favor, but called down upon him the oppres- 
sions of the Austrian government. He fled for safety to the Euga- 
nean Hills, and thence to Florence. The young poet has strongly 
delineated what he felt on this occasion in his celebrated work en- 
titled " The Letters of Ortis." An inspiring and noble elevation 
of sentiment on all subjects connected with the liberty of mankind 
appears in every page of these letters. The descriptions of natural 
scenery are also exquisitely given, and though in prose, are some of 
the writer's sweetest poetry; while the most able judges allow that 
the style affords one of the best models of modern Italian eloquence. 
But to modify this high merit, we cannot but regret its romantic senti- 
mentality, of the worst species. Foscolo lived many years in Eng- 
land, and was considered a distinguished scholar : he died in 1827. 
Pignotis's " History of Tuscany;" MicaU's " History of Italy;" 
Botta's "History of the War of American Independence;" Perti- 
cari (nephew of Monti), and his "Treatise on the Trecentisti;" 
Cesar Antonio, and his "Beauties of Dante;" Gioja's "Merit and 
Recompense," and his "Elements of Philosophy;" the tragic Nico- 



40 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

lini of Florence ; the reflective Romagnesi; the comic Nota; the 
graceful Grossi of Milan, with his most charming poem of "Ilde- 
gonda," and his epic "I Lombardi," are all eminently worthy our 
attention; and besides these, we have the comedies of Rossi and 
Count Girand, with the touching sketches of Silvio Pellico, whose 
work called "My Prisons" has awakened the sympathy of all 
Europe. Joseph Visconti was one of the chief writers of a society 
who published a periodical called "The Coffee-room ;" which ceased 
in 1766. There was also a society of "The Palentine Printing- 
press," composed of Milanese gentlemen, who published the Latin 
poets, with Italian translations, in thirty-one quarto volumes; and 
the works of Sigonio and Muratori. Casti's "Animali Parian ti" 
has procured him a distinguished name ; his " Grotto of Trophonius," 
and Anacreontic poetry, are well known. Leqpardi has penned 
minor poems of great beauty; Mauriani's "Idyls" deserve notice. 
"We have also to name Carreri's pleasing poems, with those of Ber- 
chet and Perticari; IlarcJietti is more aspiring, and his poem, in 
four cantos, of "Una Notte di Dante," is esteemed. Romani's 
tragedy of "Norma" has been mutilated for the celebrated opera, 
and his Canzonettes, addressed to Paganini, the celebrated violinist, 
are universally known. JSestini's poem, in three cantos, of "La 
Pia," is not written with sufficient energy to sustain the reader's 
interest. A crowd of minor poets ought yet to be named, that my 
readers may be convinced how truly poetry is the peculiar talent of 
the Italians. We have Barbieri, Bertoletti, Biava, Bisazza, Bixio, 
Cagnoli, Cantu, Carcano, Castagnoliy Cesari, Colleoni, Costa, Cris- 
toforis, Fiorentiiio, Gargallo, Giannone, Guerrazzi, Lamberti, Mez- 
zanotte, 3Iisirini, Midtedo, Pananti, Pejpoli. Francesco Ruffa, 
tragedian and lyrist; remarkable for the great beauty of the lines 
on the death of his wife in 1841. The Duke of Ventignano, Cesare 
delle Valle, has written the tragedy of "Medea," and various 
comedies. He is considered to have given to his country that true 
comedy, hitherto wanting in her literature; "II Bigletto;" "La 
Capitale e la Provincia;" "I due Secoli," are much approved. Oliva 
wrote "Sigesmunda di Salerno;" a poem entitled "II Messias;" 
and translated Euripides. Giuseppe Campagna has written " Sergio 
di Napoli," "Giuliano Apostate," and sonnets of merit; there are 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 41 

also Francesconi, Micheletto, De Livo, as poets of merit. Among 
the lyrists, Gasgallo shines as celebrated for his translations. Bal- 
dachini is distinguished for his fine language. The followers of the 
Komantic School are Cesare Malpiero, Pasquale di Virgilii, and 
Pietro Paola Parzanese, author of the graceful "Arrnonica Itali- 
ane." 

Guerrazzij Varese, Bazzoni, and Cantu are among the chief 
modern writers of novels. Tommaseo's " Correspondence of the 
Yenetian Ambassadors" is an entertaining work; and his poems 
and other prose works are gracefully penned. Touracelli's u His- 
tory of Naples and Sicily from 1250 to 1302" is exceedingly in- 
teresting. A late publication of Italian Tales, collected and selected 
by Zirardini, has issued from the Parisian press of Baudry. I 
venture to caution mothers and governesses against giving this work 
to young ladies. A work, entitled a Classic Readings in Italian 
Literature/' by Canizzaro, is every way worthy of attention. 

The Italians honor their female writers with a distinct notice, and 
are proud to mention their graceful productions. Nina Siciliana 
has the earliest notice ; Ricciardi de' Selvaggi, Ortensia di Gugli- 
elmo, Giustina Perotti, Livia del Chiavello, Lucrezia Tomabuoni 
de' Medici, Barbara Torelli Sirozzi, Camilla JScarampi Guidoboni, 
were all anterior to the two highly distinguished poetesses I have 
mentioned in their proper age, namely, Vittoria Colonna and Vero- 
nico Gambara; after them we have yet to name Margherita di 
Valois, Gaspara Stampa, Fiorenza Piemontese, Dafne di Piazzi, 
Tullia d' Aragona, Gerolama Gastellani, Lucrezia Figliucci, Isa- 
bella, della Mora, Suor Dea de' Bardi, Laura Terracina, Livia 
Boromeo, CJdara Matraini, Lucia Bertani dalV Oro, Leonora 
Falletti, Egeria di Canossa, Lucia Albani Avogadro, Olimpia 
Mcdipiero, Laura Battiferro degli Ammananti, Virginia Salvi, 
Dianora Sauseverino, Fiametta Malespina Soderini, Isotta Bram- 
batti Grumelli, Lucrezia Marcello, Modesta dal Pozzo Zozzi, Mar- 
gherita Malescotti, Isabella Andreini, Lodovica JSbarro Collalto, 
Lucrezia Marinella, Veneranda Cavalli, France sca Farnese, 
Margherita Costa, Laura Ghirardelli, Anna Caruso, Emilia Or- 
landini, Faustina Degliazzi Forli, Eutropia Tosini, Virginia Baz- 
zani, Aurora Gaetani, Elena Riccoboni^ Maria Buonacorsi, Gio- 

4* 



42 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

vanna Camera, Faustina Zappi, Ippolita Caraffa, Maria Strozzi 
Odalpi, Maria BorgMni, Luisa Bergalli, Prudenza Capizucchi, 
Gaetana Paperini, Petronilla Paolini, Prancesca Manzoni, Maria 
Morelli Fernandez, Rodilla Amedea, Augusta Picolomini Vastro- 
giardi, Paolina Grismoridi, Maria Cicci, Diodata Roero, Teresa 
Bandettini. Many pleasing selections from the poems of the 
above-mentioned ladies are published. The literature of the present 
age is enriched by poems from the pens of the following : Teresa 
Albarelli Vordoni, Caterina Bortoloni Condet, Adele Curti, Cecilia 
de Lima Folliero, Caterina Ferrucci, 3Iassini Rosellini, Giuseppa 
Guacci Nobile, Elvira Giaurpieri, Laura Mancini Oliva, Gfiulia 
Molino Colombani, CMara Morroni Bemabo Silorate, Giuseppina 
Poggiolinij Isabella Possi, Angela Scacerni Prosperi, Rosa Taddei, 
Giuseppina Turrisi Colonna, Angela Veronese Mantovani. In 
Italy, the well-educated natives speak of their female writers with 
infinite satisfaction and pride ; but the glory of their names has 
scarcely yet risen above the horizon of their own country. 

We must not omit naming a class of poets peculiar to Italy — the 
Improvisatori. Their talent, their inspiration, and the great enthu- 
siasm which they excite, are all illustrative of the national character. 
In them, too, we perceive how truly poetry is the language of the 
soul and the imagination. When the talent is manifested in a child, 
it is studiously cultivated, and he receives all the instruction which 
is likely to be useful to him. He is taught mythology, history, and 
philosophy; but the divine gift itself, the second and more harmonious 
language, which with graceful ease assumes every artificial form, 
this alone is left to develop itself according to the dictates of nature. 
Sounds call up corresponding sounds; the rhymes spontaneously 
arrange themselves, and the inspired soul pours itself forth in 
verse. 

Teresa Bandettini, Rosa Taddei, Gorilla Olimpica, Gianni, 
Mazzei, and Sgricci have been distinguished as Improvisatori; the 
former of the last three named wrote nothing in his study which 
could give him any claim to his prodigious reputation; when, how- 
ever, he uttered his spontaneous verses (which are preserved to us 
by the diligence of short-hand writers), we remark, with admiration, 
his lofty poetry, rich imagery, powerful eloquence, and strength of 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 43 

thought; and which place him on a level with men who are the 
glory of Italy. It is very evident that talent of all kinds is abund- 
ant in Italy. An amazing number of new books have been pub- 
lished within the last year. Patriotism is no longer a forbidden 
word; literary journals and newspapers from all parts of the world 
are liberally permitted; reading societies are numerous; in a word, 
the intellect has thrown off its chains, and the liberty of the press 
has been accorded. New ideas have been spread abroad, and the 
knowledge of foreign languages and letters has gone far to dissipate 
the prejudices of the Italians; who, instead of being an isolated 
people, have become members of the great Literary Republic of 
Europe. 

Let us now make a general outline of the phases of Italian 
Literature. In the thirteenth century, the poetry of Italy was 
formed on that of Provence. In the fourteenth century, three 
remarkable men, Dante, Petrarch, and Boccacio, gave a new power 
to the language. The fifteenth century was consecrated by the 
Italians to the study of antiquity. The invention of printing- 
multiplied the Greek and Roman classics ; academies and libraries 
were formed; criticism and philology were studied; Feltro founded 
a college for belles lettres, philosophy, and the fine arts. The dra- 
matic art revived, and produced a revolution in poetry. The six- 
teenth century was the golden age of Italian Literature. The 
Romantic Epic had its progressive perfection through Pulci, Boi- 
ardo, and Ariosto. The Heroic Epic was renewed from the ancients 
by Trissino and Tasso. Bucolic poetry was successfully cultivated 
by Sanazzaro, Muzio, and Rota. Regular Tragedy was first written 
by Trissino and Rucellai. Satirical Comedy originated in the 
Academy of Sienna by Bibiena and Machiavel, and at the same 
time the spontaneous or improvised Comedy. The carnivals of 
Florence produced the burlesque Satire of Berni. The austere 
Satire of Vinciguerra, and the melancholy Satire of Alamanni, 
were produced by the sight of the political degradation of Italy. 
Italian prose acquired a high degree of strength and eloquence 
through Machiavel. The seventeenth century is marked by the 
general decay of Italian Literature. For near one hundred and 
fifty years, says Sismondi, she produced only cold and poor copyists, 



44 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

who tried to swell their mediocrity by "bombast. Marini was at the 
head of this class. In the eighteenth century, the academy of 
Arcadia, under Queen Christina of Sweden, overthrew the school of 
Marini. The influence of French Literature was perceptible. In 
the nineteenth century, there are many illustrious names. Its Lite- 
rature is become useful and serious, says Salfi; the writers have 
shown that there is no real poetry if it is not animated by a national 
interest; and the prose has been boldly used, to speak of facts and 
truths which hitherto had never been so frankly avowed. 

The following is a list of authors, to be further consulted on the 
Literature of Italy: Tirabosclii's Hist. Ital. Lit.; Fontanini's 
Library of Ital. Eloquence; Mazzuclielli's Diet, of Ital. Authors; 
Corniani's Ital. Lit.; Ugoni's Continuation of Corniani; Gtmma's 
Hist. Lit. ; Ginguene's Hist. Ital. Lit. ; Sismondi's Hist. South of 
Europe; Salfi' s Hist. Ital. Lit.; Roscoe's Hist. Lorenzo Medici, and 
of Leo X. Besides these, Tenevelli and Gregorii of Turin; Gamba 
of Bassano; Vaerini of Bergamo; Orlandi of Bologna; Quirini of 
Brescia; Negri of Florence; Affo of Parma; Fabroni of Pisa; 
Guinani of Ravenna; Foscarini of Venice; Toppi, Nicodemo, 
Giustiniani, and Afflitto of Naples; Argelati of Milan, have all 
written works in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, which aid 
the student of Italian Literature. 



THE LITERATURE OF SPAIN. 

Spain was so closely connected with the Roman power, that we 
readily trace her literary history from the same source. Four of 
the most distinguished of the emperors of Rome were natives of 
Spain: Trajan, Adrian, Marcus-Aurelius, and Theodosius. By de- 
grees, it became no longer necessary for the youth of Spain to be 
educated at Rome. Cadiz, and other cities, had their colleges. 
The first century was remarkable for the literary character of Spain : 
Cordova was the native place of Seneca, Lucan, Florus; Martial, 
Prudentius, and Quintilian were also natives of Spain. 

The first literary impulsion of Spain came from Italy ; the second 
from Africa, whose churches, and five hundred bishops, with their 



SEVENTH CENTURY. 45 

religious disputations, gained so much renown. It was from the 
first to the fourth century that Spain shone with peculiar lustre by 
the writings of her doctors, her priests, and her bishops; and she 
remained in this palmy state till the arrival of the barbarians. Of 
these, many tribes passed through the country with fire and sword; 
but the Visigoths remained, and, by their wise and prudent conduct, 
established peace and order. 

It was about the middle of the eighth century, that the Arab 
Prince Abdheram, founded the kingdom of Cordova. Two motives 
had armed this people; fanaticism and science. Their enthusiasm 
in the religion of Mahomet led them on to every country, in the 
hope of raising the standard of the Crescent. 

But the Spaniards were already Christians, and came off victori- 
ous in that struggle, which at first cost them so much blood; and 
they remained faithful to their creed. 

Unfortunately, Spain was disunited in language, as in govern- 
ment. In Catalonia and Navarre, the Provencal was used; in 
Castile, another dialect of the Romance, while Portugal and Galicia 
had each another. No original production is known in any of these 
dialects. The love of conquest absorbed all minds, and divided the 
nation into two parties. One, easily subdued, became Arab in their 
institutions, and studied at Cordova and Seville, using the language 
of the conquerors; the other, full of enthusiasm and patriotism, 
would shake off the yoke, and retire to the mountains. Those in 
the north preserved the Castilian idiom, but neglected all literature, 
in order to repulse the conquerors : yet this literary sleep, which 
for three centuries followed the conquest, was the epoch of study, of 
taste, and of art. 

In the seventh century, St. Isadore of Seville flourished as a 
theologian. St. Julian, Archbishop of Toledo, wrote poetry as well 
as prose. St. Eulologe wrote the lives of the saints, and was him- 
self a martyr in the eighth century. In the tenth, the Arab 
Othman wrote " The History of the Poets of Spain." Many re- 
markable Spanish-Arabian writers appeared in this and the two next 
centuries; among whom we find Mo&lema of Cordova, who wrote 
"A Treatise on Numbers." Bent Aislia, a poetess of Cordova, 
left a rich library. Aboulvalid wrote the " Library of the Ulus- 



X 



46 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

fcrious Men of Spain," "Library of the Arabian Poets/' and an 
Historico-critical Dictionary. Kazradgi ben Hareth, of Seville, 
wrote a History of the Spanish Literature. Yosouf Aboulkassem 
wrote poetry and history. Zaidun Ahmed was a celebrated poet of 
Cordova. Mahomet Azadita was a historian. Dijona ben Ganah 
was a celebrated grammarian. Gassani Abulfada wrote "The 
Divan of Poesies." Saidi All wrote "The History of Barbarous 
Nations." Aben Pace was one of the most celebrated philosophers 
of the Middle Ages. Kaisi Abunassar wrote poetry and philology. 
Rosclid Averboes is called the Commentator, and was one of the 
most celebrated medical men, as well as mathematician and philoso- 
pher, among the Arabs. " Collyget" is the title of his chief work. 
Omar wrote "The Spanish- Arabian Library." Malek Gemaleddin 
is the principal grammarian of his time. Abid Hassan wrote a 
"Description of the World." 

In the eleventh century, the Christian kings kept at a distance 
from the Moorish kings, whom, however, they at last subdued, and 
their deeds were sung in ballads and romances. 

At length, in the twelfth century, appeared the famous poem 
called "The Cid" (or Hero), a national epic, which is Homeric in 
its subject. The Grecian poet had sung the victory of Europe over 
Asia; and the Spanish poet took as his theme the scarcely less 
grand victory of the Christians over the Mussulmans. 

Considered as a literary curiosity, this Chronicle is worthy of 
attention; but all that can be called poetry in it belongs to the 
national character, and the interest of the subject. The events are 
related chronologically: there is no invention: but the style is 
chivalresque, and the situations are frequently happily painted. 
We perceive in it all that has been gathered from the Arabs; the 
rhyme, the chivalrous form, the variety and the simplicity of the 
pictures. The same characters belong to the fabulous chronicle of 
"Alexander the Great." 

The Moors had diligently cultivated the arts and sciences, and 
formed an empire unrivaled for its prosperity by any in Christen- 
dom. The universities of Toledo, Cordova, Seville, and Granada 
were sought by students from every country, to acquaint themselves 
with the science, the poetry, and music of the East. 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 47 

All the other literature of Europe is European ; that of Spain is 
decidedly oriental. Its spirit, its pomp, its object, all belong to 
another sphere of ideas; nothing, therefore, can be more unjust 
than to estimate its products by our own standards. The brave 
and chivalrous feelings of the Spaniards, their pride and dignity, 
their power and richness of imagination, are all to be traced in their 
literature. In their early poems, we again behold the heroism of 
their ancient knights; and in the poets of their brightest age we 
recognize the magnificence of the court of Charles V. ; when the 
same men who led armies from victory to victory likewise held the 
first rank in the republic of letters. 

The number of Spanish writers is very considerable, and their 
fecundity almost appalling ! There are more dramas in the Spanish 
tongue than in all the other languages of Europe put together. The 
literature of Spain manifests itself in sudden and fitful lights; we 
admire it for an instant, and it is again lost in obscurity; but these 
glances always induce a desire to see more, which is gratified from 
time to time. 

Ferdinand III. showed a spirit of generous sympathy for his 
people, and ordered the laws to be translated into the Romance dia- 
lect for their benefit. He combated bravely with James of Ara- 
gon against the Moors, and obtained them the cities of Cordova, 
Seville, and Cadiz. He established corporations, and the Congress 
of Castile, or Tribunal of Appeal. 

The two abbes, Antonio and Nicolas, are recorded as celebrated 
poets of the end of the thirteenth century. Zamora wrote an 
" Ecclesiastical History" at this period, and Loaysa a "History of 
Spain." 

In Aragon, Alphonso X., son of Ferdinand IV., was surnamed 
the learned. While yet young, he knew all that had been pro- 
duced in the schools of Bagdad. As king, he was a zealous legis- 
lator, and insisted upon all the legal tribunals carrying on their 
proceedings in the Castilian language. He reformed the laws, and 
fixed the rules for astronomical observations, hence called the "Al- 
phonsine Tables;" he wrote the chronicles of his country; instituted 
chairs for Law and Philosophy at Salamanca; and published miscel- 
lanies of his own compositions. 



48 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

His people followed his example, and occasional productions were 
seen; such as the " Legends" of Gonzales de Berceo; these legends 
were the foundation of those religious dramas which afterwards be- 
came so remarkable a feature in the Literature of Spain. 

A remarkable character of this epoch was the philosopher Rai- 
mond Lulle. We find him seneschal of the palace at Aragon; 
hermit in Majorca; at Paris, Genoa, Rome, Tunis, and Algiers, 
disputing with learned men; and, after his death, reyered as a mar- 
tyr. His works are numerous. The Spanish Arab Lahamita 
wrote poetry and history. Djaeddu Abu was a celebrated poet of 
the same race. 

In the middle of the fourteenth century, Alphonso XL, of Cas- 
tile, was a protector of letters, and wrote a chronicle in verse ; the 
prince Juan Manuel wrote a celebrated work, entitled " The Count 
of Lucanor," and some poems. At the close of the same century, 
Ayala was also distinguished in this barren period. We must 
not, however, forget that Catib Mahomet, of Granada, -was a most 
prolific historian and poet. Fahrun ben Abram also wrote largely 
on the Arabs, and Leo the African wrote a "Description of Afri- 
ca," and " Commentaries on the Mahometan Religion," besides 
poems. 

With the death of Alphonso X. the spirit of literature faded in 
Spain. The fourteenth century was one of decline, the kingdom 
being torn by civil wars; but, towards its close, Juan Ruyoz, priest 
of Hita, consecrated his leisure to literary pursuits, and produced 
several clever satires; a species of writing always singularly relished 
by the Spaniards. 

The minds of the Spaniards were not, however, inactive ; in fact, 
they were never more vigorous. The people sought and obtained 
liberty, both religious and political : they shook off the yoke of the 
court of Rome, and delivered their kings from the excommunication 
of the Vatican. 

John II., like his grandfather Alphonso, protected letters, and 
was himself a writer. Talent became the premium of court patron- 
age, and without wit no man could hope to join in the splendid 
festivities of the age. 

Aragon, which up to this time had occupied itself only with the 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 49 

serious studies of law, now introduced several academies of Floral 
games. The severest magistrates unbent their brows to listen with 
smiles to the songs of the Troubadours. Villena and Santillana, 
both men of the court, poured forth boldly their thoughts, and set 
the Inquisition at defiance. Villena wrote " The History of the 
Troubadours," " Commentaries on the Eneid," and left a translation 
of Dante, and a collection of miscellaneous poems: he is looked 
upon as the father of Spanish poetry. Juan de Mena wrote " The 
Labyrinth," which has had almost as many commentators as the 
" Divina Comedia" of Dante. Clavijo wrote a " History of Tamer- 
lane," to whose court he had been sent ambassador. Valera wrote 
a " History of Spain." Pulgar was celebrated as the historian of 
Ferdinand and Isabella. Badajoz, Guevara, Ladron, Acuna, and 
Cota, were poets of mediocre celebrity in the middle of the fifteenth 
century. Haro wrote " On Reason and Thought." Juan de En- 
zinas composed the first " Art of Poetry." His brother, Francis 
Dryander, as he called himself, was a pupil of Melancthon, and 
translated the New Testament into Spanish. 

The marriage of Isabella of Castile with Ferdinand of Aragon, 
and the consequent conquest of Granada, gave great power to the 
nation. 

The Spaniards made considerable attainment in epic, lyric, and 
allegorical poetry, without the assistance of strangers : the drama 
also rose among them before they had intermingled with other Eu- 
ropean nations; they have, therefore, reason to be proud of the 
originality of their productions. The drama is singularly conspi- 
cuous in the effusions of Spanish intellect. It was formed on the 
ancient Castilian taste, and is much more irregular than that of 
other countries. Its object was to affect the hearts of men, to har- 
monize with their opinions and customs, and to flatter their national 
pride. It is on this account that neither the satirical remarks of 
other nations, nor the criticisms of their own men of letters, nor 
the prizes of their academies, nor the favors of their princes, have 
ever persuaded them to adopt the system which at present prevails 
in the rest of Europe. 

The Spaniards refer the origin of their drama to three works of a 
very dissimilar kind — the Mysteries represented in churches; the 



50 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

satirieo-pastoral drama, entitled " Mingo Rebulgo," by Cota; and 
the dramatic romance called " Celestina." The Mysteries were ac- 
companiments to religious ceremonies; in which frequently the 
most gross buffooneries were used in the representations of sacred 
writ. The " Mingo Rebulgo" was rather a political satire in dia- 
logue than a drama, and was written during the reign of John II., 
to ridicule that monarch and his court. The " Celestina" merits 
the attention of all who wish to trace the true origin of the drama 
among the moderns. The first act of this singular production was 
written by an anonymous author, towards the beginning of the fif- 
teenth century, at a period when the Parisians were passionately 
fond of the mysteries and moralities which were represented by the 
Fraternity of the Passion, and the clerks of the Bazoche, and dis- 
plays much comic talent. The first author left the production in- 
complete. Fernando de Rojas got possession of the fragment, and 
added twenty long acts to the first, which was itself very long. He 
involves his characters in the most romantic adventures, and gives 
a tragical conclusion to the whole. Some people praised the " Ce- 
lestina," and commended it as a moral work; others condemned it 
as detailing immoralities which need never be published; the Church 
was consulted, and its decision was inconsistent; the " Celestina" 
was prohibited in Spain, and permitted in Italy. The Spaniards 
still glory in this national production, which, in their opinion, 
opened the career of the drama to the moderns. Juan de Hoz 
wrote dramas of good repute. " Avarice Punished" is the most re- 
markable. Juan Valdesso was a reformer of this period : he wrote 
11 Considerations on a Religious Life;" — a work which was trans- 
lated by Nicholas Ferrar, and printed at Oxford in 1638. 

But, in the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, which ought to have 
been an age of intellectual progress, the Inquisition damped all 
mental efforts; every one who attempted to introduce the senti- 
ments of other countries, either in metaphysical or religious specu- 
lations, was no sooner discovered than he was committed to the 
flames, together with his work. Intellectual pursuits were conse- 
quently abandoned in terror; and it was not till the transfer of the 
government to Madrid, in the time of Ferdinand's grandson, 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 51 

Charles V., that the taste for literature revived, in the classical 
style, which was the only safe path. 

Early in the sixteenth century, the value of Christopher Columbus 
was felt in his death: the "Letters" and "Journal" of the cele- 
brated navigator have profound interest. His second son, Ferdi- 
nand, left a magnificent library to the city of Seville. Castillo 
formed the Spanish " Cancionero," or collection of one hundred and 
thirty-six lyric poets. Donna Cervaton is remarkable for her "Let- 
ters." The Cardinal Ximenes published a polyglot Bible. 

It is most painful to read of the numbers of learned men who 
perished at this period; and the list of prohibited books published 
in 1559 becomes almost ludicrous in its abundance. As well put 
the human mind in prison, if it were possible ! 

In the midst of this gloomy night, the affections and the imagi- 
nations were left to spread their gentle influence; and Boscan, with 
his friend Garcilasso, rose like twin stars on the horizon of litera- 
ture, to delight their countrymen and the world. They are both 
distinguished for their correct and graceful style. Boscan was pre- 
ceptor to the notorious Duke of Alva, but failed to instill any of his 
own soft nature into that tyrant : he wrote in the manner of Pe- 
trarch. Garcilasso also considered himself as a disciple of Petrarch. 
His restless disposition led him to seek military employment at the 
Austrian court. Here his enthusiastic nature made him aspire to 
the love of a lady superior in rank to himself, and occasioned his 
banishment by the king to one of the islands of the Danube. But 
Garcilasso redeemed his liberty by his poetry, and his master's fa- 
vor by his bravery. Among the thirty sonnets of this poet, many 
are distinguished for that sweetness of language and delicacy of 
expression which take the soul captive; and the mixture of sadness 
and love with the fear and the desire of death, powerfully expresses 
the agitation of his soul. Garcilasso is called the Spanish Petrarch : 
he wrote odes, sonnets, pastorals, and other poems. Boscan wrote 
sonnets, canciones, epistles, and translated the Hero and Leander of 
Museus. Peretius or Juan Perez was remarkable for his precocious 
talents; he wrote the "Panegyric of Mary Magdalene." Gil Polo 
continued the "Diana" of Montemayor, and wrote other poems. 
Perez de Oliva wrote many excellent prose works, especially a "Dis- 



52 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

course on the Power of the Soul," and "Dialogues on the Dignity 
of Man." Garces wrote an " Epistle to Paul III." in favor of the 
Indians. 

Mendoza ranks as the third of the Spanish classical poets, and 
was one of the celebrated statesmen and generals who distinguished 
the reign of Charles V. While still a student at Salamanca, Men- 
doza wrote " The Life of Lazarillo de Tormes," the first and plea- 
santest of those memoirs of rogues for which the Spaniards have 
manifested a peculiar taste. In after life, Mendoza showed great 
ardor in the collecting of Greek manuscripts; and his reputation 
was augmented by his " History of the Civil Wars of Grranada." 

The reign of Charles V. was rich in poets; but there is a sameness 
observable in all of them, which is chiefly owing to the general adop- 
tion of pastoral poetry for the expression of their ideas : they are, 
therefore, not calculated to leave any lasting impression on the 
mind, save the remembrance of their harmony and a sort of languid 
softness. 

Merrera and Luis Ponce de Leon must be added to the preceding, 
as possessing the same characteristics. Herrera has obtained the 
surname of the divine, and stands at the head of the lyric poets; 
more, it is said, from party spirit than any peculiar merit. He is 
noted for his use of Latinized words, and that pedantic air which, 
with some, goes further in the creation of a great name than origin- 
ality and native wit. There is, however, one exception in Herrera' s 
poems; the author of the "Ode on the Battle of Lepanto," in my 
opinion, truly deserves the title of divine : it is all soul, and that 
in its brightest essence, universal piety : not the piety of sect or 
country, but the deep feeling of a spirit which, while it adores in 
humility, knows itself "a spark of the Divinity," and looks far 
beyond the littleness of earth. Luis Ponce de Leon has also a re- 
ligious cast in his inspiration, and is more generally correct in style. 

JD'Acuna made an elegant translation of some portions of Ovid, 
and was celebrated for the grace and feeling displayed in his son- 
nets and canzoni. Cetina was the first happy imitator of Anacreon. 
Several attempts were made in the lifetime of Charles V. to per- 
petuate his glory in an epic poem ; but his flatterers failed, and their 
efforts are forgotten. Castillejo devoted himself to the ancient style 



SIXTEENTH CENTUEY. 53 

of Spanish poetry called " Redondilhas," and exhibited much spirit, 
grace, and ease. 

Gomara wrote a "General History of the Indies," "Annals of 
Charles V.," and several other works. Mejia wrote a " History of 
the Caesars." Matamores was celebrated for his learning. Cano 
was surnamed the Christian Cicero, and wrote various theological 
works. Ocamrpo wrote general " Chronicles of the History of 
Spain." Saint Theresa, a Carmelite nun, wrote several remarkable 
works : as, " The History of her Life," " The Road of Perfec- 
tion," " Internal Faith," and " Letters." Luis of Granada was a 
celebrated Dominican friar. Works relative to religion and mysti- 
cism were very prevalent in Spain at the close of the sixteenth cen- 
tury. " The Magdalen" of Malon, " Mystic Works" of Cruz (who 
was afterwards canonized), the " Christian Patience" of Zarate, the 
" Life of St. Jerome," by Siguenza, are all works produced by the 
religious views of the age. 

Two distinguished historians adorn this age, — Mariana and Zu- 
rita. The former wrote the " History of Spain," which gave him a 
brilliant name: he is thought to have taken Livyfor his model; but 
was constrained in his expressions by the fear of the Inquisition : 
we must also remark that he and Zurita, as well as Ferreras Sa- 
avedras and Garihai, are so jealous of their country's honor, as to 
be often unjust towards others. They frequently forget that, 
though patriotism is one of the first of manly virtues, love of truth 
is the first duty of the historian. Ferreras wrote a History of 
Spain, and assisted in the compilation of the great Spanish Dic- 
tionary. 

The writers of fiction in Spain are very numerous and singularly 
national in their character. Their works may be classed under four 
distinct heads: chivalric romances, pastoral tales, pathetic or love 
stories, and adventurous details of life in every grade. 

We now come to one of the master-spirits of Spain — Cervantes. 
In his youth, he wrote a great number of poems and romances; but 
his entire want of fortune induced him to attach himself to the 
Cardinal Aquaviva, with whom he visited Rome. A servile office 
was ill suited to the activity of his mind. He entered the army, 
served under Colonna, and lost his left arm at the battle of Le- 

5* 



54 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

panto. Thus incapacitated for a soldier's life, Cervantes embarked 
for Spain. The ship was captured by a Barbary corsair, and Oer- 
r antes was carried prisoner to Algiers: he remained five years in 
captivity, and was then ransomed. Three years after, he published 
his " Gralatea," a pastoral tale, which has been imitated in French 
by Florian; and then a number of comedies, most of which have 
been lost. Lope de Vega was then attracting great attention by his 
comic talents, and his rivalry humiliated the struggling Cervantes 
so much, that for a while he laid aside his pen, and during the life 
of Philip II. obtained some little employment, which only just pre- 
served him from absolute want. The death of this monarch libe- 
rated the minds that had been weighed down by his despotism. 
Cervantes soon after gave to the world the first part of his inimita- 
ble " Don Quixote," and the success of this part quickly led to the 
production of the whole. This work has been translated into all 
European languages. It has been said that Spain possesses but one 
good work, and that a critique upon all the rest : its value is such, 
that it has become incorporated with the literature of every Euro- 
pean State, and may be said to have lost its nationality. The 
melancholy monarch, Philip III., could never smile, save when fol- 
lowing the adventures of the hero of La Mancha; but neither 
Philip nor any of his courtiers thought fit to grant assistance to the 
indigent author, and poor Cervantes, in prison for debt, was left 
there " alone with his glory !" Spain had been for many years 
overrun with books of romantic knight errantry, for the most part 
miserable compositions, in imitation of Ariosto; by which the na- 
tional spirit was misdirected, and its taste corrupted. Cervantes 
saw this, and also the increasing admiration of his countrymen for 
that inflated style and puerile play upon words which seem to be the 
result of a diseased imagination. " Don Quixote" appeared, and no 
work ever exhibited a more lively satire, or a happier vein of inven- 
tion. The perpetual contrast between the poetical and the prosaical 
spirit is its most striking feature, while the romance of the imagina- 
tion, mixed up with the petty details of social life, is productive of 
the most ludicrous effects. The hero is raised in our esteem by his 
generous feelings ; and, although carried to mad excess, we cannot 
help delighting in the elevated mind which makes it the object of 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 55 

life to defend the weak, to aid the oppressed, and to be the cham- 
pion of justice and innocence. It is said, by the natives of Spain, 
that the style of " Don Quixote" possesses an inimitable beauty, 
which no translation can convey, and which no other writer has 
equalled. At the same time, a continuation of the first part of 
" Don Quixote" was written by Avellaneda, which much annoyed 
Cervantes, although it has considerable merit. Cervantes wrote also 
the romance of " Persiles and Sigismund," which the Spaniards 
greatly admire; also a collection of tales, called "Exemplary 
Novels." His poem, called " A Journey to Parnassus," is a satire 
on the literary taste of the age, and contains many beauties; but 
such is the merit of " Don Quixote," that we never think of inquir- 
ing for anything else from the same author. 

There is a remarkable opposition in the rise of the drama in 
Italy and in Spain. In the former country, men of the highest 
genius, assisted by munificent princes, attempted to revive the dra- 
matic representations of the ancients : while in Spain, mountebanks 
composed and recited their own dramas, without any other object 
than that of amusing the populace as a source of profit to them- 
selves. Thus it followed, that the Italian dramatists wrote to please 
the learned, the Spanish to please the ignorant: method, refine- 
ment, taste, and erudition distinguished the one; while vigor, 
nature, and teeming invention, marked the other. The "Nu- 
mantia" and "Life in Algiers" are what remain of the plays of 
Cervantes. Cervantes had witnessed in his youth the commencement 
of the dramatic art in Spain, and may be looked upon himself as 
one of its founders. But, after the fall of the mysteries, the drama 
was slow in forming. Lope de Rueda assisted it greatly as actor 
and author, and was succeeded by Naliarro. 

Among the cotemporary writers was Ercilla y Zuniga, author 
of a poem called "Araucana," which has sometimes been cited as 
the only Spanish epic : this is, however, warmly contested by the 
natives, and no less than thirty-six other poems of this class are 
mentioned by them, not one of which is of conspicuous value. 
Voltaire first drew attention to the "Araucana," and borrowed 
from it in the formation of his tragedy called "Zaire." Maurique 
was the lyric poet of this age. 



56 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

Lope de Vega was born fifteen years after Cervantes. His facility 
in writing poetry was equal to its utterance by the Italian improvi- 
satore. He tells us he had written a hundred plays, which were 
represented within four and twenty hours of their first conception. 
His friend and biographer, Montalvan, remarks, that he composed 
more rapidly than his amanuensis could write : thus, with incon- 
ceivable fertility he produced two thousand two hundred dramas, of 
which three hundred have been published. This prodigious literary 
labor produced Lope de Vega almost as much money as glory. No 
poet ever enjoyed his own fame more: he was surrounded by 
crowds whenever he appeared, and was denominated the "prodigy 
of nature" and the " phoenix of Spain." Honors and rewards 
showered upon him from all sides; but we must detract from their 
purity, by telling that they were as much bestowed for fanatical 
zeal as for poetical talents. Amongst his dramas there are about 
four hundred of the Sacramental Acts. It has been calculated, as 
a matter of curiosity, that Lope de Vega wrote twenty-one million 
three hundred thousand lines ! 

Cervantes had originated the idea of a grand and severe style of 
tragedy ; but after Lope appeared, neither tragedy nor comedy, pro- 
perly so called, was to be found : novels and romances usurped the 
stage. One of these comedies is a dramatic novel : the burlesque 
and the tender, the vulgar and the refined are mingled together, 
without destroying the spirit of the piece; princes and potentates, 
valets and lovers, all carry on the plot, as the exigencies of the 
story require. Curiosity is excited by a complicated intrigue, and 
the author does not attempt to give longer duration to the interest, 
or the emotion of the spectator, than to their laughter. Nothing 
like a desire to cultivate the morals of the people is visible. Lope 
de Vega portrays passions the most disordered, and in perfect ac- 
cordance with the impetuous temperament of the nation. His 
sacred pieces depict in very faithful colors the religious spirit of his 
times and the prevailing manners; and of these the Sacramental 
Acts possess more dignity than the dramas on the lives of the 
Saints. These last are written with the most incongruous union of 
characters : allegorical personages, buffoons, saints, peasants, scholars, 
kings, the infant Messiah, the Almighty Father, the devil, in addi- 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 57 

tion to all the heterogeneous beings which a grotesque imagination 
can conceive, are made to act and converse together. These pieces 
were acted in churches, and the scenes were often such as to excite 
in the minds of the cultivated in our day an idea of gross irrever- 
ence, and even blasphemy. The Sacramental Acts were of more 
simple construction, and composed of long dialogues on theology, 
disputations, and scholastic subtleties. Before the representation of 
one of these pieces, which also were performed in churches, a pro- 
logue, equally allegorical, but mingled with comedy, was presented 
to the audience, as if to indemnify them for the more serious atten- 
tion about to be required; and between the acts of the sacramental 
piece was an intermediate one, entirely burlesque. 

Lope de Vega is very little read out of his own country, and few 
of his writings have been translated; in fact, there are traits in his 
dramas which disgust the moralist, and are revolting to the philoso- 
pher : for instance, the slight horror and little remorse inspired by 
the commission of murder. There is no nation where so much in- 
difference has been manifested for human life; and Lope de Vega, 
instead of correcting, administers to the evil tastes of his country- 
men. How fatal must have been the effect of exhibiting to a people 
already too prone to sanguinary revenge, the characters of robbers 
and murderers as heroes of their country ! Bravery in conflict with 
social order, unjustifiable resistance to magistrates and the inferior 
officers of justice, were set forth as the favorite heroism of the stage. 
In the mean time, Las Casas was redeeming the honor of his 
countrymen by his virtuous and energetic conduct towards the poor 
Mexicans. The best work of this excellent man is "A General 
History of the Indies." 

At the same period as Lope de Vega, there appeared in the world 
another great genius who also created the theatre of his country — 
Shakspeare lived at this time; but the barrier which separated the 
languages of the North from those of the South divided the illus- 
trious rivals. Perez de Montalvan cannot be separated from his 
master. This young man was full of talent and fire. His admira- 
tion of Liope de Vega knew no bounds. He took the latter for a 
model; and not only wrote one hundred theatrical pieces success- 
fully, but was also the biographer of the admired original : like him, 



58 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

too, Montalvan was divided between poetry and the Inquisition, of 
which he was a notary. While comedy had all at once become thus 
brilliant, tragedy had been essayed by Oliva, who wrote " Fregen- 
val;" Bermudez drew two subjects from the piteous tale of Inez de 
Castro; Cueba wrote both tragedies and comedies; De Castro wrote 
"The Cid," and gave a subject which has more perpetuated the fame 
of the French poet Corneille than his own. Corneille developed the 
beauties of which he found the germ in De Castro, both as to plot 
and ideas. 

The only great philosopher that Spain has known lived in this 
century. Lewis Vives was for a considerable time the tutor of 
Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., who used to value him so much, 
as to visit Oxford for the sake of hearing his lessons. The chief 
work of Vives is a " Treatise on the Corruption and Fall of the Arts 
and Sciences." His works were collected and published at Basle 
in 1555. Francisco and Juan Lugo were theological writers of 
this period, belonging to the order of Jesus. It was the latter who 
introduced the use of the bark of the quinquina tree as a medicine. 

At the close of the sixteenth century, the literature of Spain bore 
all the impression of the corrupted taste of the people and their 
government. The intellect of the nation seemed to be gradually 
declining; but it was not till the middle of the seventeenth that it 
appeared to have fallen into a lethargic slumber, which was evi- 
dently brought about by the weakness of the latter princes of the 
House of Austria. Gongora was the chief of the fantastic and 
affected school, who were desirous of forming a new epoch by more 
refined culture, as they expressed it. Marini had carried into Italy 
this weakness, about the same period. Gongora is obscure in his 
allegories, ridiculous in his epithets, and pedantic in his manner; he 
styles the Man§anares, "the duke of rivulets or the viscount of 
rivers." Lo Desma and Arteago applied the same eccentricities to 
pastoral poetry as Gongora had to the "Loves of Polyphemus;" 
Arteago wrote " A Treatise on Ideal Beauty." Villegas is called 
the Anacreon of Spain, but often shows all the follies of the school 
of the cultoristos or refiners. The two brothers Argensola were 
much superior; and Lobergo, the elder, wrote three tragedies which 
have been much admired; the younger brother imitated Horace 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 59 

with considerable skill. The historical works of Lohergo are good 
in style. "The History of the Conquest of the Moluccas/' and 
" The Annals of Aragon/' are standard works. Herreras Torde- 
sillas wrote "A General History of India/' and "A History of 
Spain/' both of which are highly esteemed. Geronimo dc Alcala 
wrote several works on religious subjects, but is now chiefly known 
as the author of one of the best Spanish novels, "El Donado Ha- 
blador." 

Figueroa wrote various poems; those of Ledesma are mystic. 
Espinel was at once a priest, a poet, and a musician. He trans- 
lated Horace, wrote epistles, odes, "The Temple of Memory," and, 
in "The Life of Marc Obregon," gave Le Sage a model for his Gil 
Bias. Virves was a dramatic poet. Aguilar of Seville was a pro- 
lific poet, and also a painter. He translated the "Aminta" of 
Tasso, and wrote a poetical "Discourse against the Style of Gon- 
gora," with many other works. Suarez Figueroa was an imitator 
of Montemayor. He wrote "The Mirror of Youth/' "The Constant 
Amaryllis," and, besides other original poems, translated the "Pas- 
tor Fido" of Guarini. Borja y Aragon wrote the epic of "Naples 
Reconquered," and other poems. Rioja was a friend of the cele- 
brated Quevedo, and wrote "Epistles," and poems, especially a 
celebrated ode entitled "The Ruins of Italy." This century was 
remarkable for the universal effort to write ; and, from the prince to 
the peasant, we find an endeavor to be known by literary talent 
pervading Spain. Rebolledo was a noble, general, governor of the 
Palatinate, ambassador, minister, and poet. His lyrics are yet 
admired. But Quevedo is the only one of this age who awoke the 
remembrance of Cervantes. Quevedo has been compared to Vol- 
taire; not so much in genius as in turn of mind — a versatility of 
talent, a vein of pleasantry, a cynical gayety, an adroitness of ridi- 
cule, and the art of compelling the abuses of society to appear 
before the bar of public opinion. He is, however, so lavish of inci- 
dent, and his strokes of wit are so frequent, that he fatigues even 
while he amuses, and his great error is wasting his genius on com- 
mon ideas. Quevedo' s prose works are, "A Treatise on the Art of 
Ruling/' a variety of "Visions," used as satires; "Advice to the 
Lovers of Fine Language;" "A Treatise on all Subjects in the 



60 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

World, and many besides;" with "The Life of the Great Tocano." 
In this last, he paints the manners of his country in a very amusing 
way. Quevedo has also written above a thousand sonnets, many of 
which contain great beauties; besides numerous poetic romances, 
pastorals, and allegories. The Jesuit Molina wrote his work en- 
titled "The Agreement of Grace and Free-will/' which created 
fierce disputes between the Jesuits and Dominicans. 

Moncada was another author of illustrious family; his work en- 
titled " Expedition against the Turks and Greeks" is esteemed. 
Coloma wrote " The Wars of the Low Countries," and translated 
Tacitus. Nieremberg became a naturalized Spaniard, and has writ- 
ten fifty-one works in Latin or in Spanish. The Jesuit Gracian 
had great influence in literature; his principal works are " A Man- 
ual of Prudence;" " Cunning, the Art of the Mind;" " The Hero;" 
"The Political Man;" "The Discreet Man, or Man of the Court." 
Nicolas Antonio wrote a celebrated work on " Exile," besides form- 
ing " The Spanish Library," a work in two folio volumes, published 
at Rome. 

Querrera wrote " The Devil on Two Sticks," afterwards remo- 
deled in French by Le Sage. Antonio de Soils is deservedly no- 
ticed for his " History of the Conquest of Mexico," and was also 
very much renowned for his theatrical compositions, among which 
" Love a la Mode" is, perhaps, one of the best comedies of which 
his country can boast. Solis was united in close friendship with 
one who became the star of his age ; a man of decided genius, whose 
dramatic productions are admirable, but, unhappily, frequently 
licentious and immoral. Colder on de la Barca has been styled by 
the Spaniards the prince of dramatists. The Spanish literature is 
peculiarly distinguished by this conspicuous talent in the composi- 
tion of plays, as if the exuberance of feeling amongst them found 
here the best method of emitting its variety and warmth. Caldcron 
was as fertile in genius and diligent in writing as Lope de Yega. 
Contrary to the habits of his countrymen, Caldcron left nothing to 
chance; all his plays are finished with the most perfect talent, 
agreeable to fixed principles, and to the first rules of art. Calderon 
was a true poet, with an imagination less vast than that of De Vega, 
though more flexible and better regulated; he avoided the faults of 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. CI 

his predecessor, and so far surpassed him, as to cause him to be 
almost forgotten. Calderon's plays may be divided into four 
classes : representations of sacred history, mythological pieces, his- 
torical pieces, and pictures of social life. " His true genius," says 
Schlegel, " is peculiarly shown in the management of religious sub- 
jects; he contemplates and paints, with imperturbable serenity of 
soul, the passing tempests of the world; his poetry is an unceasing 
hymn of joy on the splendors of the creation." Such are the re- 
marks of his G-erman critic. His French biographer, Sismondi, 
says, " that Calderon, although endowed with a noble genius and 
brilliant imagination, appears to be the man of his own age, the 
wretched epoch of Philip IV. j he loses sight of nature in the cha- 
racters he represents ; truth is unknown to him ; and aiming at the 
ideal, he produces only exaggeration ; he is the true poet of the 
Inquisition ; no one ever so far disfigured Christianity by passions 
so ferocious, or morals so corrupt." These opinions are very oppo- 
site, yet I am inclined to think both critics in some degree right. 
Schlegel may be styled the poetical admirer, Sismondi the moral 
inquisitor. Calderon has penned exquisite poetry, but degraded 
his muse by occasional grossness ; and his religion is strongly tinc- 
tured with the prejudices of his church. 

By the side of Calderon shone Moreto, whose style is more sim- 
ple, whose dialogue is more lively, and whose pleasantries are more 
natural. One of the pieces of this author, called a Indifference 
agaiust Indifference," might be fixed upon to give the general cha- 
racter of the whole Spanish theatre. At the same time lived another 
prolific dramatist, Gabriel Sellez, who wrote under the name of 
Molina. He is remarkable for seizing every occasion to launch his 
witticisms and epigrams, and spares no authority, human or divine. 

It is a singular observation that we have to make of all these 
clever writers, so little restrained by moral principle, namely, that 
they chiefly belonged to the ecclesiastical profession. Lope de Vega, 
Calderon, Moreto, Molina, and Soils were all priests ! 

The Spanish dramatists show more invention than observation ; 

more imagination than good sense; more force than taste; more of 

natural qualities than of acquired. Hence it arises, that all have 

sought from preference to sketch intrigues on their canvas, rather 

6 



62 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

than paint characters; to put adventures in procession before us 
rather than passions and vices; and thus their theatre resembles 
more a magic lantern than a gallery of portraits faithfully traced, 
as in our own Shakspeare. 

It is also certain, that, during the reigns of Philip III. and Philip 
IV., in the second half of the golden age of Spanish literature, 
while yet the stage was inundated with innumerable authors, not 
one of the forty companies of actors then existing offered to the 
public a single tragedy. 

Philip IV. wrote several pieces for the theatre; and it is curious 
to observe a monarch's view of private life, and what notion a per- 
son entertains of society who is by rank elevated above all partici- 
pation in it. Philip failed, both as poet and king, to excite respect. 
Michael Molinos published his " Spiritual Guide/' and thus became 
the founder of the Quietist opinions. 

De Roxas enjoyed a high reputation for comic talent in the mid- 
dle of the seventeenth century; his best piece is considered to be 
"The Plot is laid among Fools/' 

The reign of Charles II., who transferred, at his death, in 1700, 
the heritage of the House of Austria to the Bourbons, is the epoch 
of the last decline of Spanish literature: it is the period of the 
perfect insignificance of this splendid country in the political world, 
and of its extreme moral debasement. Condamc/s drama of "The 
Slave in Chains of Gold" belongs to this period; as also "The Sun 
of Faith at Marseilles, and the Conversion of France/' by Reynoso 
y Quinones, and " The Mary of Jesus," a drama by Armesto. Efforts 
were, however, made, with some degree of success, to imitate the 
French writers of the time of Louis XIV., as in Luyando Mont land's 
two tragedies; but they want elegance of language to compensate 
for stiffness of manner. Luzan imitated Boileau, and wrote "The 
Art of Poetry." The exertions of Mayam and Fcijoo assisted 
greatly in producing a new era. The critical work of the latter, 
"El Teatro Critico," first appeared in 1726, and was continued pe- 
riodically. The former was in the law, but delighted to extend the 
taste for literature. 

Nicolas Moratin was among the most earnest reformers of the lite- 
rature of this century. He wrote the tragedies of " Hormisinda" 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 63 

and "Lucretia;" also an epic poem entitled "The Ships of Cortez," 
and other works ; and was the father of the celebrated comic writer 
Leander Noratin. Cadalso wrote the tragedy of "Don Sancho;" 
Thomas Yriarte was the author of various poems and fables; and 
Caldaza was an industrious translator from Racine, Voltaire, and 
other French writers. 

A man of infinite wit, Father de la Isla, satirized the scandalous 
degradation of Christian eloquence, for which the pulpit was con- 
spicuous, in a very clever work entitled " The Life of Friar G erund 
de Campazas;" and here I must observe that the Italians do not 
possess a single work to be placed by the side of those of Cervantes, 
Quevedo, and Father de la Isla. They consider it beneath them to 
mingle pleasantries with philosophical reflections; but we must not 
believe them to be the more profound thinkers on that account : 
they are only the less agreeable. "The Life of Friar Gerund" is 
considered one of the best satires ever written. 

There are other prose writers of this period of less renown. Ve- 
lazquez wrote on the " Origin of Spanish Poetry," and Ciscar " On 
the Origin of the Spanish Tongue." The Jesuit, Father Burriel, 
was a celebrated antiquarian. Larramendi, of the same order, 
wrote on theological subjects. Father Florez was of the order of 
St. Augustine, and is celebrated for his "Key to History," "Reli- 
gious Spain," and other works. 

The "Virginia" of Montiano, and the "Teatro Espaiiol" of De 
la Huerta, appeared at the close of this century; as also Sedano's 
"Spanish Parnassus," with some light and graceful idyls by Melen- 
dez Valdez; but none of their works are conspicuous in excellence. 
Lampillas, a Jesuit, wrote warmly in defence of his national litera- 
ture, under the title of "Essay, historical and apologetical, on the 
Literature of Spain." The two brothers Mohedano wrote a "His- 
tory of the Spanish Literature." Juan Bautista Munoz was chief 
cosmographer of the Indies, and wrote a "History of the New 
World." Don Rodriguez de Castro wrote a "History of the Aca- 
demicians," " On the Origin of the Goths," and other works. The 
peaceful reign of Ferdinand VI. was favorable to literature; and 
Charles III. did more to promote letters than all his predeces- 
sors united. The spirit of the age proved too powerful for the "sa- 



64 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

cred tribunal of the Inquisition :" every writer seemed desirous of 
promoting the interests of freedom and humanity; and Charles III. 
gave decided preference to literary talents for every post of office in 
his kingdom. There was a brilliant display of genius and talent 
in this reign; and such men as Andujar, Cabrera, Cambronero, 
Clemente, Goristizia C Farril, Herreros, Hermosilla, Lardizabal, 
Nunez, Reinoso, are known in every branch of literature. 

In 1788, Charles IY. began his reign, when the reform of the 
colleges, and expulsion of the Jesuits, by the influence of the Mar- 
quis of Roda, were a great help to literature. 

The loss of Leandro Moratin marks the opening of the nineteenth 
century. He has been surnamed the Moliere of Spain, and is de- 
servedly at the head of the modern writers of comedy in that coun- 
try. His poem of "La Toma de Granada," and an excellent 
comedy of "El Viejo y la Nina," with "El Baron," and "El si 
de las Ninas," are very justly esteemed. Triarte wrote many Latin 
works, and was an accomplished scholar, as well as a writer of many 
light and graceful fables. The same taste was evident in Sama- 
niego, which gained him the name of the La Fontaine of Spain. 

Tajna's poem of " The Conquest of Seville," and Heredia's poem 
of " The Whirlwind," adorn this period. TJlloa eloquently re- 
corded his voyages; and his nephew, of the same name, was a cele- 
brated critic. Bustamente was a learned antiquary. CavaniUes 
wrote a remarkable work on botany; Hervas made an extensive 
catalogue of languages; Sanchez wrote "The History of Religious 
Eloquence in Spain;" and Fojardo established the periodical called 
" The Thinker." 

Jovellanos, whose name is synonymous with all that is good and 
amiable, equaled the best of his European co temporaries as an 
eloquent and refined scholar and a profound statesman. Whatever 
he did was well done. We have " A Collection of Lyric Poems" 
from his pen; a comedy entitled "The Honorable Delinquent;" 
with a vast variety of treatises relative to different branches of gov- 
ernment; but the writings for which he is most especially. renowned 
are, " An Essay on the Project of an Agrarian Law," published in 
1787 ; and soon after " An Essay on Public Amusements." 

Juan Melendez Valdez is called the Anacreon of Spain, and has 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 05 

obtained a place among the most distinguished poets in any age for 
his odes. Llorente is among the most industrious writers. His 
" Critical History/' and " Plan of a Religious Constitution/' 
brought him into notice too conspicuously, and he expiated the 
fault of superiority in penniless exile. His " History of the In- 
quisition'' is fearfully interesting. Marina wrote u The Theory of 
the Cortes/' and " Annals of the Holy Office/' which are imperish- 
able monuments of erudition and research. Florida JBlanca, and 
more especially Campomanes, labored to introduce a knowledge of 
political economy in all its branches; and the invaluable work of 
the latter " On Popular Industry" was circulated with as much 
zeal in Spain, as the Bible in England. The whole strength of the 
intellect of Campomanes, which was remarkably powerful, was given 
to writing for the benefit of his country. Innumerable essays and 
dissertations, as well as memoirs and discourses, flowed from his 
eloquent pen; all more or less on subjects relative to the political 
economy of Spain. The Countess Montijo published numerous 
tracts calculated to enlighten the poorer classes. Capmany was a 
celebrated philologue and economist, and wrote an extensive work 
on " The History and Criticism of Eloquence," with several other 
works. Masdeu, a Jesuit, wrote " A Critical History of Spain." 

The stormy pamphlets of the French Revolution were rigorously 
excluded from Spain. This was the period of Florida Blanca's 
first difficulties as prime minister, as the numbers of denunciations 
caused violent oppositions to his authority. The entire trade of 
booksellers was, in many instances, interdicted; some were severely 
fined, and frequently kept in secret prisons. At length, the Roman- 
tic School of Germany received its admirers in Spain, and a new era 
began : for it was not till the commencement of the present century 
that there was anything of value in the tragic theatre of Spain. 
Cimfuegos, a nephew of Jovellanos, is the Alfieri of this country : 
he was aided by the histrionic talent of Isidoro Mayquez, an actor 
so perfect as to be considered superior to Talma, to Kemble, or to 
Kean. Then followed Quintcma, whose tragedy of u Pelayo" is 
written with such a spirit of nationality, that the Spaniards, when 
forced to repulse an invading enemy, repeated aloud its finest parts, 
as they marched to combat. His " Lives of Illustrious Spaniards" 

6* 



66 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

is a very. valuable work. His volume of " Poesias Selectas Castel- 
lanas" contains poems replete with energy, patriotism, and beauty. 
Galliardo's "Dicionario Critico Burlesco" gives excellent speci- 
mens of Spanish satirical humor. Savinon and Garostiza, in fol- 
lowing the same steps, and making their pens subservient to the 
interests of freedom, did wonders towards spreading the sacred flame 
among their countrymen. Trigueros wrote " El Poeta Filosofo," a 
didactic poem of great merit. The " Letters" of the Count de 
Cabarrus hold a distinguished place. Lardizabal has written on 
the criminal code with great eloquence. At the present moment, 
the elegant poet and accomplished scholar, Sefior Martinez de la 
Rosa, shines conspicuously. The delicacy of his taste, and pecu- 
liarly bland sweetness of his mind, are only equaled in attractive- 
ness by the power and strength of his judgment. His piece, called 
" The Widow of Padilla," was composed and played during the 
siege of Cadiz. The tragedies of " Morayma" and " (Edipus" have 
added great honor to his name, especially the latter : his fugitive 
pieces are replete with grace. In England, " The Spanish Legends" 
from the pen of Moza, with a paraphrase of Conde's "History of 
Spanish Arabs ;" Clavigero's translation of the "Ancient History of 
Mexico;" and a volume of poetry entitled " No me Olvides," of no 
ordinary beauty, prove that the exiled sons of Spain are not without 
graceful talents or praiseworthy industry. To this list many other 
estimable names might be added; as that of Blanco White, and 
also that of Treuba Cosjoy. Indeed, the terrible political struggles 
of Spain have long put an effective barrier to any rapidity of mental 
progress within her own limits; and the language and literature 
of the peninsula are not very generally studied in this country. 
During the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, Spanish was, in a great 
measure, the language of the court ; it was also extensively culti- 
vated during those of Charles and James. The study of Spanish 
literature, however, went out of fashion on the accession of the 
House of Hanover. Circumstances, some years since, gave it, once 
more, a temporary popularity. The intimate political connection 
which existed between the two countries during the Peninsular War, 
and the crowd of distinguished Spaniards who were compelled to 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 67 

seek refuge on our shores, contributed to revive a taste for the litera- 
ture of Spain. 

Archbishop Amat has written an "Ecclesiastical History/' and 
a work on "The Church Militant/' he is considered one of the 
"glorias" of the Spanish Church : his nephew, Bishop of Astorga, has 
ably written a biography of the learned Archbishop, and other works. 
Apecccha wrote some fine poetry, but died young; his sonnets, and 
a poem entitled "The Crown of Flora/' are much admired. Arjona 
Roldan and Francisco dc Castro belong to the same class of poets, 
and are graceful writers. Arnao wrote several distinguished articles 
in the Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Navarre, and 
translated " Humboldt's Travels." Arriaza is highly estimated as 
a poet; in the "Espagne Poetique" of Maury, he takes a pre- 
eminent place. Bermuclez de Castro writes imaginative prose and 
pretty verses: he is one of the editors of the "Madrid Heview." 
Breton dc los Ilerreros is a prolific dramatic writer, and stands as 
the Scribe of Spain. His plays, entitled "A la Vejez, Viruelas;" 
"Los dos Sobrinos/' "El Ingenuo/' "La Falsa Ilustracion," and 
several more, are generally admired. Ilerreros is director of the 
National Library of Madrid, and member of the Spanish Academy, 
and looked upon as one of the cleverest men of the day. Burgos 
first distinguished himself by his translations from the ancients; he 
then published a work entitled " Continuacion cle Frutos Litera- 
rios," in four quarto volumes, with interesting notices of inedited 
works: his "Biografia Universal" was interrupted by the disturbed 
state of the country; but he employed his pen on dramatic com- 
positions, as "Los Tres Iguales," in which he is thought to have 
equaled Calderon and Solis; "El Baile de Mascara," and "El Opti- 
mista y el Pesimista." The exalted political position of Burgos 
gave extraordinary weight to his fine work, entitled "Instruccion (\ 
los Subdelegados de Fomento," which is one of the very few works 
stereotyped in Spain. Serafin Calderon has written some pretty 
poesies, and a novel called " Cristianos y Moriscos." The memory 
of Count Campo Alange is cherished for the patriotism he displayed 
in his writings and his character; in the periodical called the 
"Artist," many of his tales and sketches have met with general 
admiration. Canal is known chiefly by his essay on the literary 



68 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

life of Antolin Merino, who had continued the "Espana Sagrada." 
Carvjal spent a busy political life, but found time to write some 
charming poetry in the manner of Leon and Herrera; his versifica- 
tion of some of the Psalms, and other parts of the Scriptures, is 
looked upon as superior to all others; his " History of the Rebellion 
of the Moors" is also much valued. Francesco de Castro has left 
some admired odes. Don Jose de Castro is author of the tragedy 
of "Boabdil," and the drama of "Fray Luis de Leon/' which has 
had an extraordinary success. Clemencin is highly distinguished 
as a geographer and historian; many of his papers formed the chief 
excellence, during several years, of the memoirs of the Spanish 
Academy; his researches on the antiquities of Spain are much 
valued; he has also left, "Memoirs on the History of the Cid;" 
"Commentaries on Cervantes;" "Essay on the Queen Isabella, 
and her Influence on the Sixteenth Century;" in a word, Clemencin 
stands among the first Spanish prose writers of the present age. 
Donoso Cortes is a barrister who has gained considerable reputation 
for his literary talents, as editor of the periodicals called " El Por- 
venir," and "El Piloto;" he was afterwards director of the "Mad- 
rid Review." Duran has edited an interesting work, entitled 
" Coleccion de Romanceros y Cancioneros," and published important 
observations on "La Decadencia del Teatro Espanol." Escosura 
has written the novels, "Conde de Candespina," "Ni Re ni Roque," 
and several successful plays. Espronceda wrote a poem entitled 
"Pelayo," and minor pieces. Floran is another minor poet, but 
whose sonnets possess great merit. Estrada shines as a historian 
and political writer; his " Introduccion a la Historia de la G-uerra 
de la Independencia," and several other large quarto volumes on 
important political questions, led the way to his better known 
works, entitled " El Tribuno del Pueblo Espanol," and " Curso de 
Economia Politica;" which last is considered a masterpiece, and has 
called forth the praises of eminent writers both in England and 
Prance. The Duke de Frias has published some very pleasing 
poetry. Galliano has edited various reviews and literary papers, as 
the " Revista Espanola," " Correo National," "La Espana," "El 
Piloto;" and has passed an active life in the service of literature. 
Gallego is an aged poet, whose youthful and maturer productions 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 69 

have been well esteemed; bis " Elegia al Dos dc Mayo" created 
considerable attention. Gutici'rcr: has written a fine drama, enti- 
tled " El Trovador," and has obtained a just renown from that and 
various other theatrical pieces. GarelU is noticed as a protector of 
literature, and a man of great eloquence in the Senate. Enrique 
Gil is a graceful and energetic poet. Gil y Zarate is one of the 
first admired poets of modern Spain; his dramatic works, entitled 
" Rosaniunda," and " Blanca de Borbon y Carlos II.," have gained 
him a sure name in after ages. Hartzenbu&ch, born of German 
parents, brought, from the genius of his fatherland, all the taste 
and fanciful dreams of his countrymen. His "Redonsa Encantado" 
was very successful in the theatres; and his minor poems met with 
a cheerful welcome. Hermosilla is distinguished in literature and 
philology: his latest works are a translation of the Iliad, and a 
u Curso di Critica Literaria." Jerica is noted as a graceful poetical 
fabulist. Larva's u El Castellano Viejo" is a fine specimen of 
brilliant prose writing. Lista is highly distinguished, both in prose 
and poetry : in the former, we have, as specimens of fine writing, 
his "Introductions to History and to Literature;" and, in poetry, 
his verses, entitled " La Vida Humana," leave nothing to be de- 
sired. Madrazo is noticed as a poet and prose writer of mediocre 
talent ; his poem, entitled " La Senda de la Vida," is graceful and 
plaintive. Maturana's " Teodoro o el Huerfano Agradecido" in 
verse, and " Sofia y Enrique" in prose, are his principal works. 
Maury published, in Paris, " La Espagna Poetica," and the poem 
of "Esveroy Almedora;" his translation of Dryden's " Alexander's 
Feast" is very boldly and ably clone. Mesonero first attracted at- 
tention by the graceful style and exact observations of his publica- 
tion, entitled "El Curioso Parlante;" and afterwards by his "Se- 
manario Pintoresso Espanol." Minands political writings are enti- 
tled, " Las Cartas del Pobrecito Holgazan," " Los Usos y Derechos 
Imprescriptibus del Pueblo," &c. ; he wrote also " La Historia dc 
la Revolution de Espana, durante los Anos de 1820 al 23," &c. 
The Marquis of Miraflores has written some energetical pamphlets 
on political subjects. Mora published the " Cronica Cientifica y 
Literaria," first in Madrid ; and then, emigrating to England, con- 
tinued it, under the protection of Ackermann, with the first four 



70 SPANISH LITERATURE. 

numbers of " No me Olvides," " Meditaciones Poeticas," and va- 
rious other minor publications of great merit. Santisteban has 
published some articles in the " Revista de Madrid j'/ and a work, 
entitled " Consideraciones sobre la Organization Politica y Social de 
Espana," &c. ; and is an eloquent member of the Cortes. Pacheco 
is an active member of the literary world, and has written cleverly 
in reviews and periodicals, besides having penned some very sweet 
verses. His dramas of " Alfredo/' and " Los Infantes de Lara," 
have been much admired. 

Pastor Diaz was a poet from his earliest years, but has not pro- 
duced any one great work, being drawn aside from literary pursuits 
by the political events of his distressed country; his poems, entitled 
" El Artista," and " Oda a la Luna," are, however, considered 
among the best in the language. Pillegrin appeared in the politi- 
cal arena under the name of Abenaman, and distinguished himself 
in most of the periodicals as a spirited writer of prose, and an ele- 
gant writer of verses. Pena y Aguayo has written ably as a juris- 
consult. The Duke de Rivas (Saavedra) is one of the brightest 
ornaments of modern Spanish literature : on leaving his country, in 
1822, he wrote some fine lines, entitled "El Desterrado;" in Lon- 
don, " Florinda," and "El Sueno del Proscripto," were penned; 
shortly after, his fine composition " Al Faro," and the " Moro Espo- 
sito," the drama " Don Alvaro," and the comedy " Tanto Vales 
Cuanto Tienes," with the historical novel of " El Conde de Villa 
Mediana •" many very beautiful fugitive pieces are later productions. 
Poca de Togores, Solas y Quiroga, jSamoza, Tapia, Torcno, and 
Vega, are praiseworthy and industrious writers of the second rank. 
Zorilla takes a higher station, and has won a brilliant position in 
the literature of his country, in the present day; his poetry is much 
enjoyed by the fair sex, and his historical novels equally so. The 
" Tesoro de Novelistas Espaiioles," with notes by Don Eugcn io de 
OcJioa, is a most entertaining work for the winter's evening. 

Don Tomas Gonzales has left a manuscript of a supplement to 
the History of Charles V., which is exceedingly interesting. Ga- 
liana has written a "History of Spain." Capman has given 
" Historical Notices of Barcelona," and regrets the burning of in- 
teresting archives in the late bombardment of that city. Mcmdrom 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 71 

has published " A Narrative of the Campaigns of Zumalacarregui," 
and " A History of the Keformed Cortes. " Translations from 
many of our best British authors are very general in Spain; but 
their present publications are chiefly collections of, and selections 
from, their own finest writers. The unsettled political interests of 
any country call forth countless pamphlets, and the press of Madrid 
has been conspicuous for its prolific progeny of this nature; which, 
in spite of governmental prohibitions, circulate liberally among the 
eager population. A Spanish magazine, entitled " La Colmena," 
is regularly published by Ackeraiann; and the " Antologica Espa- 
iiola" promises to be a valuable periodical. 

The early phases of the Spanish literature have a distinct and 
predominating oriental feature, which was, at a later period, joined 
to the style of the Troubadours of Provence. Up to the middle of 
the thirteenth century, it bears these characteristics; when we find 
the brilliant and pompous manner of the East united to the stiff 
and ungraceful style of the monks, and the mysticism of the Christ- 
ian religion mixed up with ancient mythology. Historical chroni- 
cles, in meagre verse, marked the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 
with the addition of translations from the classics, and some few 
pastoral poems. The brilliant exploits of the reign of Ferdinand 
and Isabella, with those of their successor Charles V., ought to have 
produced fine writers, but the Inquisition arrested the progress of 
general intellectual advancement; poetry, however, rose above per- 
secution. G-arcilasso, Boscan, Mendoza, and Herrera distinguished 
the sixteenth century. The seventeenth was opened with brilliance : 
Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Calderon, and Quevedo were its stars. 
It closed in weakness; and this continued to the middle of the eight- 
eenth century, when a few patriotic men endeavored to revive the 
apparently lethargic energies of their countrymen; and, at the close 
of this century, Spain was quite alive to the necessity of encou- 
raging the intellectual advancement of her children. The nine- 
teenth century has seen a general effort and desire to encourage 
native talent predominate even above the political difficulties of this 
long-agitated country, 

The principal works to be further consulted on the literature of 
Spain are, Schotus's Library of Spain; Taximeter's Cat. of Span. 



72 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. 

Writers 5 Matamores Hist, of Acad, of Spain; Nit. Antonio's Span. 
Lib.; Mohedano's Hist. Span. Lit.; Ant. Baena's Illus. Child, of 
Madrid; Lampilla's Ess. Lit. Spain; Casiri's Lib. Hist, and Apol.; 
Guarino's Ess. Lit. Charles III. ; Quintana's Life of Ccl. Span- 
iards; Capmany's Crit. Hist. Sp. Eloquence; Siscar's Let. Lit.; 
*Bduterwek's Hist. Lit. Spain; Rossi's Diet. Spanish Arabs; Sclde- 
gel's Hist. Dram. Art; Lord Holland's Life of Lope de Vega. 



THE LITERATURE OF PORTUGAL. 

There is only one monument existing of the ancient language of 
Portugal : it is a fragment of thirty-two verses, which appears to 
belong to the age of the Arabs' first penetration into Europe ; but 
as the kingdom of Portugal is only nominally separated from that 
of Spain, as they call themselves Spanish and their neighbors Cas- 
tilian, it is to be believed that they were conquered by the same 
masters as Spain; and the strong resemblance of their tongue to 
that of the Latins, proves that the Roman government had strongly 
marked its passage in Lusitania. 

Among the early Arab authors of Portugal, we find Abul Valid, 
Abu Amran, and Abu ben Didvazatin, who is noticed as a cele- 
brated poet of the seventh century. Abdchnaleh ben Badrun was 
still more renowned and at a somewhat later period. Abdala ben 
Rada was a moralist, who died about the middle of the eleventh 
century. But before this period Recesvindo, a Benedictine monk, 
had gained renown by a poem in praise of St. Engratia. 

Spain was only beginning to shake off the yoke of the Mussul- 
mans, when Portugal had already completed its emancipation under 
a prince of the Capetian race. Henry of Burgundy, in 1072, 
offered his services to Alphonsus VI. of Spain ; these the king ac- 
cepted, and gave him all the country between the Douro and the 
G uadalquivcr, if he should succeed in conquering the Moors ; he 
did so, and obtained the price of his victory, becoming at once son- 
in-law of the King of Aragon and Count of Portugal. lie sur- 
rounded himself with a few troubadours that he brought with him, 
and laid the foundation of the of Portugal. His son 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 73 

Henry, happy and brave, vanquished five Moorish kings, and was 
crowned king himself in 1139, and was one of the first poets of his 
country; he sang " The Siege of Santarem." His friend, Moniz 
CoelJiOy was also a poet as well as a warrior, and Hermiguiez was 
the Anacreon of his age; but their writings are only useful, as 
showing the progress of the language rather than that of the intel- 
lect, for they are scarcely intelligible to us. 

In the thirteenth century, King Diniz founded the University of 
Coimbra, and it is thought that he first introduced rhyme in verse ; 
his son Alphonso followed in the same tastes. There were some 
sonnets imitated from Petrarch, at this period; but the real litera- 
ture of this country begins only towards the end of the fourteenth 
century, when John I. ascended the throne. 

John I. conducted an army into Africa, and pursued, with ardor, 
the Moors. It was now that Vasco de Lobeira gave to the world 
his "Amadis of Gaul/' and gained the title of father of poetic 
chivalry. 

Towards the close of the thirteenth century, the worthy Bon 
Matheos, Bishop of Lisbon, wrote a " History of the Martyrs of 
Morocco," which is still a manuscript. At the commencement of 
the fourteenth, Father Santarem wrote " Statutes for the Order of 
Christ." The sad history of Don Pedro I., and his unfortunate 
wife, Inez de Castro, is of this epoch, and has been the subject of 
many fine tragedies. The unhappy king wrote " Cancioneiros," 
and other poems. Bon Pedro, Count of Barcellos, was diplomat, 
poet, and historian. He wrote " On the Lineage of Mankind." 
Marias died in 1407. He had attached himself to the Marquis 
Villena, but incurred the anger of his patron by his unfortunate 
admiration of a young lady, a relation of the marquis. Marias was 
imprisoned, but still poured forth his melancholy poesies, and con- 
trived to have them sent to the fair lady, whose husband, inflamed 
with indignation, set out to avenge the insult, and, recognizing the 
poet at a window of his prison, threw his javelin with such precision 
as to kill Marias on the spot. Gir aides has left a poem on " The 
Battle of Salado." A son of John I. composed various poems. 
Alphonso V. wrote " The Art of Fighting of the Ancient Portuguese." 
There is a precious manuscript in the Royal Library of Paris, from 
7 



74 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. 

the pen of Durate, King of Portugal, entitled " The Art of the 
Cavalier, and a Treatise on Morals." Regras was a celebrated 
j urisconsult of the middle of the fifteenth century. Azurara wrote 
the u Chronicle of John I." Fernando Lopes has given us the 
touching episode of " Inez de Castro," and relates it rather as a 
chronicler than a poet; but he has so much grace in his naivete, that 
he is called the Froissart of Portugal. Resende formed his cele- 
brated collection of national songs. 

Ribeyra is one of the sweetest poets of the Peninsula; but of all 
species of poetry, the lyric and bucolic are least susceptible of being 
rendered into another tongue, and their beauties are, therefore, sel- 
dom known beyond their own country. His poetic romance of 
" Menina and Moca" had great success ; and his story, entitled 
" The Innocent Young Girl," is remarkable as being the earliest 
Portuguese production in prose, which aims at an elevation of lan- 
guage, and expression of the more impassioned sentiments of the 
heart. 

The glory of Portugal faded after Emmanuel, surnamed the 
Great. There is a " History of India," in manuscript, from the 
pen of this king. John IH. gave up his affairs to the Jesuits, and 
had his grandson, Sebastian, brought up by them ; but he protected 
letters with especial care. 

The loss of the great navigators, Albuquerque, Magellan, and 
Vasco da Gama, opens the sixteenth century; their voyages and 
conquests had a natural influence on literature at a later period. 
jpina is esteemed as an exact historian of this epoch. Tieve was a 
moral poet; and Banadra (a shoemaker) was a popular comic poet 
of the same age. 

Gil Vicente is surnamed the Portuguese Plautus; he is the ear- 
liest distinguished comic poet, and such was his reputation, that 
Erasmus studied the language expressly to read his works. His 
daughter Paula was the first actress of her time. Gil Vicente 
wrote comedies, tragi-comedics, and many autos, both sacred and 
profane. His son was the victim of envy, and was banished to 
India; he, also, wrote a great number of ... : i );m j one( j 

himself to his feelings, and wrote beautiful pastorals in the style of 
the Italian Canzoni. He traveled, and brought home the tastes of 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 75 

Italy. He was the favorite author of John III., yet died unno- 
ticed. Mcmtemayor wrote a poetic romance, entitled " Diana.'' 
There is a pastoral, in this poem, which is universally selected as a 
masterpiece; it was continued admirably by Caspar Polo. Miran- 
da and Montana yor are stars in the Portuguese literature, and 
wrote in the Castilian dialect. This period is especially marked by 
the adventurous voyages of the Portuguese j and we find Pereira 
Pacheco, Alvares, jSFuno da Cimha, and Galvam, all leaving records 
of their individual voyages, or descriptions of the countries they 
visited. Castanheda wrote a " History of the Discovery of India/' 
Goes is considered a classical historian of the reigns of John II. and 
Emmanuel the Great. One of the supporters of the literary glory 
of this age was Perreira, who is named the Horace of Portugal; 
his tragedy of " Inez de Castro" is full of the pathetic and the 
sublime; he also wrote a good comedy, called "The Jealous Man," 
and various odes, epistles, and eclogues, under the title of " Lusita- 
nian Poems." Sylvestre, Barcellos, Caiado, Palcam, Dacosta, Cas- 
tro, Mello de Souza, and Lobo Serram may be classed as of nearly 
the same degree of talent as poets of the middle of the sixteenth 
century. They were eclipsed by Camoens, deservedly named the 
poet of Portugal : his poem of " The Lusiad" is a complete epic, 
perfect in action and arrangement, and full of poetry. Like most 
of his brethren, Camoens was the child of Fortune's unwearied 
persecution; unable to bear the degradation of poverty, u the proud 
man's contumely," and the pitying contempt which the learned men 
of Coimbra bestowed upon the efforts of his muse, he left his coun- 
try, and went to India, in 1553. Yet he fondly loved his native 
land, and in the solitude of his existence, with the spirit of a mar- 
tyr, he poured forth the overflowings of his heart in her praise, 
while he was wreathing an immortal coronet for her brow. The 
upright and independent spirit of Camoens rebelled against the in- 
justice which he saw in the government of the Portuguese settle- 
ment in India, and he dared openly to speak against this injustice. 
For this he was banished from the colony, and went to live at Macao. 
There is still to be seen, on the most elevated point of the isthmus, 
which unites the town of Macao to the Chinese continent, a sort of 
natural gallery, formed out of the rocks, apparently almost suspended 



76 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. 

in the air, and commanding a magnificent prospect over both seas, 
and the lofty chain of mountains which rise along the shore. Here, 
it is said, the poet of the western world invoked the spirit of the 
Epic Muse; and tradition has conferred on this retreat the name of 
" The Grotto of Camoens." Here, dwelling upon the actions of 
the heroes of his country, Gamoens felt the chain which bound him 
to them, and it was strengthened by absence; and, after sixteen 
years, he returned to the land of his fathers with a still warmer at- 
tachment to it than before. But Portugal was suffering under the 
accumulated misfortunes of the brave Sebastian; and Camoens, who 
had nobly supported his own miseries, was bowed to the earth by 
the calamities of his country. 

The earliest edition of the " Lusiad" appeared only three years 
before the death of the poet. The object of the author is the re- 
cital of the Portuguese conquests in India ; but he has happily 
contrived to blend all the illustrious actions of his compatriots in 
other quarters of the globe, together with whatever of splendid and 
heroic achievement, historical narration, or popular fables could 
supply; and that which forms his own and his country's glory is 
the national love and pride breathing throughout the whole perform- 
ance. At the period at which Camoens wrote, we must remember 
that no epic poem had appeared in any of the modern languages. 
Trissino, an Italian, had attempted the subject of the liberation of 
Italy from the Goths, but had not succeeded. Not content with the 
glory which must spring from the " Lusiad," Camoens tried almost 
every other species of literary effort, and succeeded in all. His 
sonnets and eclogues are exquisitely beautiful; many of them have 
been translated into English by the elegant pen of Lord Strangford ; 
and independently of their merits as translations, have, from their 
peculiar grace and harmony, become some of the most popular 
poesies in our country. The patriotic zeal of Don Jose de Souza 
Botelho has recently atoned for the neglect shown to Camoens. 
He published a splendid edition of the "Lusiad" in 1817; and had 
it embellished with all that the arts of typography, design, and en- 
graving could lavish on a book : he then presented copies to the 
most celebrated libraries of Europe, Asia, and America, not permit- 
ting a single copy to be sold. 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 77 

Prcstes was a prolific dramatic poet of the age of Camoens. Luiz 
Brandam wrote an epic poem of great length, entitled " Eligiada." 
Oricntc wrote so good a pastoral, " Lusitania transformed/' that it 
was attributed to Camoens. Caminha wrote, with great elegance, 
epistles, eclogues, and other poems. Chiado was a dramatic author 
of little instruction, but of great talent as an improviser. Pirez 
was, on the contrary, a highly distinguished writer of dramas. 
Bernardes has left twenty graceful eclogues. Cortereal was a fol- 
lower of Camoens' s master spirit : he attempted epic poetry, and 
took the subject of the misfortunes of Sapelveda, which had fur- 
nished Camoens with his most beautiful episode; but he belongs only 
to the second class in excellence. Jloraes is one of the earliest Por- 
tuguese writers of romances. Another learned Resende flourished 
in the middle of the sixteenth century. He wrote on the antiqui- 
ties of Portugal. The king Don Sebastian, born in 1554, and 
killed at the memorable battle of Alcazar-Kebir in 1580, is believed 
to be the author of a work on " The Arms and Fortifications of the 
Ancient Portuguese." After his death, many of his letters were 
published by Manoel Lyra. 

This age saw also the best historians animated, like the poets, 
with a just national pride. Barros is considered the Livy of this 
country; his works make us acquainted with the New World, and 
his " Asia" is of value, both for authenticity and style. Osorio, 
Bishop of Sylves, and Friar Lisboa, are both esteemed as historians. 
Besides these, we have the works of the great Albuquerque, whose 
commentaries on the conquests of Portugal form a perfect history. 

The voyages of the celebrated Mendez Pinto distinguished the 
sixteenth century, and present in their details the most singular and 
interesting facts. In the same age, Averio visited Jerusalem, and 
published his Itinerary. Thome, a monk of the order of St. Augus- 
tine, wrote "The Works of Jesus." Martyres wrote a " Catechism 
of the Christian Doctrines." Lucena and Arraiz are looked upon 
as classic authors ; the former for his admirable style in " The Life 
of Saint Francis Xavier;" the latter in his "Dialogues." 

The death of Manoel, Count of Vimioso, an esteemed poet, hap- 
pened at the opening of the seventeenth century; his works are, 
however, chiefly minor pieces, and were eclipsed by the writings of 

7* 



78 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. 

Lobo, who wrote pastorals of great sweetness, and other poems. 
Soto Mayor was one of the best poets of this period; his chief poem 
is entitled " The Banks of the Mondigo." Veiga was one of the 
bucolic writers of Portugal who have distinguished their country. 
Monteiro wrote a poem entitled " Gronzalo of St. Amaranth." Ma- 
cliado wrote the dramas of " The Siege of Dm/' and " The Shep- 
herd of Alfea." Gonzales Andrade is noticed as a distinguished 
poet; but he only wrote minor poems. Mauzinlio is honored as 
the second epic poet of Portugal; his chief work bears the title of 
"Alphonso the African." Tovar was a mystic poet. Gabriel 
Castro wrote an epic called u Ulysses, or the Foundation of Lisbon." 
Coutinho was a poet ; he raised a monument to the memory of his 
friend Camoens. Rollein is remarkable for his poems being written 
in a noble style. Olyveira Cruz, Sylveira, Pitta, and Pinto Ribeiro 
all belong to this prolific age of Portugal's second-rate poets. Manoel 
and Botellio Vasconcellos both rose a little above the crowd; the 
latter wrote an epic poem entitled " Alphonso, or the Foundation 
of the Portuguese Monarchy." Paiva de Andrada wrote a remark- 
able poem in Latin, on the conquest of Chaul in India. Menezes 
distinguished himself by a poem on the conquest of Malacca. 
Manoel Thomas is said to have shown peculiarly precocious talents ; 
in his mature years, he wrote the poems of " Insulana," " The 
Phoenix of Lusitania," " The Treasure of Virtue," and other poems. 
Galliegos wrote the " Grigantomachil." Gusman Soares wrote 
11 Lusitania Restored," and other poems of a superior class. Mas- 
carenhas wrote a heroic poem entitled " Viriatus." Gomes, one 
of the councillors of Louis XIII. of France, wrote a epic entitled 
u Samson." The two Macedos were distinguished, especially Fran- 
cisco, who ranks as one of the principal poets of this century. His 
works are numerous, and consist of epic poems, elegies, epigrams, 
odes, &c. "Orpheus," a tragi-comedy of his, was played before 
Louis XIV. of France. 

It was not till after the peace of 1668, when the independence of 
Portugal was recognized, that it was perceived how far the national 
intellect had deteriorated. The country had been inundated by 
numbers of ill-written sonnets and pastorals. The false taste which 
reigned in Spain, also gained an ascendency in the sister-kingdom. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 79 

JSouza is a name yet a little remembered as of this period, but 
famed more for fecundity than for talent. Bacellar brought still 
more exaggerated sentiments of languor and affectation into fashion. 
Aadrade was a better writer of prose than poetry; he laughed at 
Gongoro. Several others of the Spanish school might be named, 
but their works are scarcely known out of their country, and little 
esteemed in it. 

In theatrical productions, Gil Vicent and Camoens had been 
eminently successful ; they were now abandoned, and Lope de Vega 
being taken as the reigning favorite, all sentiment of nationality was 
extinguished. 

Among the prose writers of the seventeenth century, we must 
mention Friar -Learn, who wrote "Chronicles of the Kings of 
Portugal;" and Mariz, also esteemed as a historian. Brito wrote 
history with extreme care; but did not live to finish. His best 
work is entitled " A History of the Portuguese Monarchy." His 
style is considered correct and elegant. There were two authors 
of the name of Souza in this age; Luiz JSouza wrote a "History 
of St. Dominic," "The Life of St. Bartholomew," and "Considera- 
tions on the Tears of the Virgin Mary." Faria e Souza was a 
clever diplomatist, and a poet and critic, as well as a historian. 
He made it a rule to write twelve pages, of thirty lines each, a-day. 
His chief works are " Commentaries on the Lusiad," " Portuguese 
Asia," and two other works on the possessions of Portugal in Europe 
and America. Barbosa was a man of extraordinary learning. He 
made a dictionary of the Portuguese language, and wrote various 
theological works. Diego Couto continued the " Asia" of Barros, 
and Antonio Brandatii carried on still further the work of Couto. 
Saverim de Faria was another distinguished historian, and a cele- 
brated critic. His best works are "A Notice of Portugal," and "A 
G-eneral Account of Portugal." Feo, Ceita, and Freyre are given 
as models of eloquence in serious writing. The sermons of the first 
have been translated into other languages. Teixeira was another 
preacher of celebrity. Pinto Riheyro was a distinguished poly- 
graphe of this epoch. Semedo wrote the "History of China." The 
"Letters" of Don Mello are the portion of his works best known. 
Oardosa wrote " The Library of Illustrious Lusitanians." Balkazar 



80 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. 

Telles was a celebrated Jesuit, who wrote "Chronicles of the Com- 
pany of Jesus." Esperanza was a writer of ecclesiastic history; 
also Lopes Cabrcd. Viera was a distinguished Jesuit of this period. 
He wrote a political work under the singular title of "The Art of 
Robbing." Menezes was G-overnor of Tangiers, and wrote a history 
of that place; also "The Life of John I." 

At the opening of the eighteenth century, the literature of Por- 
tugal was in a most languid state ; we find, however, Lesbio shining 
as a poet and musician, Lima as a dramatic poet, and Mascarenlias 
Monteroyo as a prolific writer on various subjects. His chief works 
are entitled "Progress of the Portuguese Arms," and "The Sub- 
mission of the Orizes." Besides these, he left many works on 
Turkey. 

During the protracted reign of John V., the government made 
several efforts to revive the literary character of the nation. An 
academy of languages was formed, and one of history, but neither 
fulfilled the expectations of their founders. At length, towards the 
middle of the eighteenth century, the despotism of the minister 
Pombal, though it stifled the rising talents of individuals, roused 
the nation from its slumbers. The Count d'Ericeyra wrote a regu- 
lar epic, entitled "The Henriquiad; or, the Life of Henry of Bur- 
gundy;" but the directions of Boileau failed to inspire the count 
with the national fervor which was felt by the soldier poet; or to 
endow him with the same pensive spirit, or invest him with that 
halo of love and glory which distinguish the muse of Camoens. He 
wrote also a variety of prose works, and founded an Academy of 
Letters. Dos Reys was an industrious writer of both poetry and 
prose. His chief works are "Eulogy of the Portuguese Poets," 
and "The Portuguese Mars." He was a Jesuit, and favorite of 
John Y. Gaetano de Sovza continued the biography commenced 
by Cardosa. 

The dreadful calamity of the earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755, is 
said to have destroyed many precious literary labors, both ancient 
and modern. 

Dos Rcis Quito, was a dramatic writer of this epoch. The un- 
fortunate Garcam was the regenerator of taste at this period, and 
is called the Horace of Portugal. He died in prison, where the 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 81 

orders of Poinbal had placed him. Oliveira wrote sacred poems. 
Via'ra, the painter, was celebrated as an elegant poet. Rimalho 
wrote an epic entitled "Lisbon Rebuilt." Carvallio wrote a poem 
called " Graticanea," in the comic-heroic style. Bias Gomes wrote 
various poems, and was esteemed as a critic. Victorino Da Costa 
wrote with extraordinary facility, and has left a great variety of 
works written in bad taste; as, "The pure Liquid of Syntax," &c. &c. 
Barhosa Machado was another laborious writer of the eighteenth 
century. He wrote "The Life of Don Sebastian," and a vast col- 
lection of Portuguese biography. 

The species of composition in which the Spaniards most excelled, 
and in which they were the most prolific, is peculiarly deficient in 
Portugal. Antonio Jose > a Jew, wrote some clever theatrical pieces 
in the manner of the French vaudevilles, which drew the Portu- 
guese in crowds to see them. Though illiterate, coarse, and vulgar, 
Jose evinced a genuine vein of humor; and the nation began to re- 
joice at the promise of a drama of its own, when suddenly poor 
Antonio was seized, and, horrible to say, burnt alive by order of the 
Inquisition. The managers of the theatre became alarmed, lest 
their faith should be suspected, by continuing to represent the un- 
fortunate Jew's productions, and they closed the theatre. In 1788, 
a Royal Academy of Sciences was founded, many curious memoirs 
were published, and the regeneration of letters appeared near at 
hand. Luis Verney produced his celebrated work, entitled " The 
true Method of Study," which made a profound sensation in Por- 
tugal. In 1791, a prize was proposed by the Academy, for the best 
Portuguese tragedy; and the laurel crown was awarded to a lady, 
the Countess Vimeiro, for her production of " Osmia." On opening 
the sealed envelop, accompanying the piece, there was found only a 
direction, in case "Osmia" should prove successful, to devote the 
proceeds to the cultivation of olives, a fruit from which the Portu- 
guese might derive much advantage; and it was not till ten years 
after, that the name of the modest writer was known. The first 
volume of the dictionary of the Academy appeared the year following. 

At the opening of the nineteenth century, we find Barhosa Du- 
boccage greatly admired by his countrymen, and as much beloved. 
He was a relation of the celebrated Madame Duboccage. His poems 



*r 



82 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. 

are penned -with equal grace and truth. Francisco Manoel is an- 
other favorite poet of this period, whose works are an honor to his 
country. Domingo Torres has left some pleasing poems. Da Cruz 
JSj/Iva was a poet of considerable renown. Do Nascimento bears a 
still higher reputation. He wrote sometimes under his academical 
name of Fylinto Elysio; and, besides having written many original 
poems, he translated several from the French. Baptist Gomes dis- 
tinguished himself as a dramatic poet. Denis translated with talent 
and industry from the poets of France and England; and also wrote 
a history of Portugal. Correa da Serra was a celebrated acade- 
mician, and wrote historical and botanical works. The present age 
can boast of a fine poet in Antonio de Castilho, who has done much 
for the language and literature of his country. Almeida Antonio 
Garrot is a lyric poet and dramatist of eminence. Mendes Leal, 
Ignacio Pisarro, and Pedro Mesquitella are also among the poets 
of the day. The ladies of Portugal have been frequently distin- 
guished by their literary talents. We have already mentioned one; 
and in the sixteenth century we find the names of Agnes Baroosa, 
Donna Maria, daughter of king Emmanuel, Sigea, one of her 
ladies, and Joanna Vas, among the poetical writers of the age. In 
the middle of the seventeenth century, JSister Pimental was a writer 
of religious poetry; her chief work was entitled "The Infancy of 
Christ." At the close of the same century, Sister Violante do Ceo 
was surnamed the Tenth Muse. Many of her poems are graceful 
and pleasing; but there reign a false taste and affected manner in 
nearly all of them. They were published in the " Portuguese Par- 
nassus/' of 1703. 

Like all countries disturbed by political events, Portugal has 
deeply to lament her neglect of letters. In the early phases of the 
Portuguese literature, we may remark that the sovereigns of the 
country were frequently its best supporters, and also its best poets. 
Early in the fifteenth century, Macias, one of Portugal's sweetest 
poets, brought the language to a high degree of elegance, and pro- 
duced a large school of writers in the Galician idiom. The first 
attempt of printing was made in the middle of this century. The 
sixteenth century was to Portugal what the age of Louis XIV. was 
to France. Miranda brought home treasures of Italian grace; and 



GERMAN LITERATURE. 83 

Ferreira was a successful imitator of the classic Greek and Roman 
writers. Comedy arose under Gil Vincente, and pastoral poetry 
brought into notice several of its cultivators. The wonderful ex- 
ploits of her voyagers made Portugal observed by the whole of 
Europe ; and Camoens arose to sing the glories of his country in 
the first great epic poem of modern European literature. History 
and epic poetry distinguish the seventeenth century in Portugal, 
but towards its close there was an evident failure in every branch 
of letters. This continued till near the close of the eighteenth cen- 
tury ; and Portugal scarcely can be said to have yet regained her 
former splendor of intellectual talent, although many poems, dis- 
tinguished for grace and sweetness, have lately issued from her 
press. 

The following are some of the best works to be further consulted 
on the literature of Portugal : Pereira's Treas. Port. Lang. ; Nic. 
Antonio's Diet. Port. Auth. ; Farm's Ulus. Portuguese; Brito's 
Lit. Port. • Barhosa's Lusit. Lib. ; the Travels of Du Chatelet, 
Murphy, Linch, Bourgoing, and Dumourier ; Memoirs of the 
Acad, of Sciences ; Memoirs of Lit. pub. by the Acad. Sci. ; Cor- 
rect da Serra's Lit. Port. ; Bouterwek, Holiday, Sismonde, Balbi, 
and Ferd. Denis, on the same subject. 



THE LITERATURE OF GERMANY. 

The Goths, a nation of pure Germanic origin, embraced at an 
early period an imperfect form of the Christian religion. The 
clergy alone cultivated the national idiom. A translation of the 
Gospels, by Bishop Ulphilas, in the Maeso-Gothic dialect, is the 
first monument of literature which has descended to us. Ottfried, 
a Benedictine monk of Weissemburg, translated the Gospels into 
the Frank idiom about three hundred years later. Walafrid and 
Wandulbert were historians and poets. GodescJiaUc and Raymo 
were theologians and philosophers. Iso of St. Gall wrote a " Dic- 
tionary of the Sciences." Solomon II. , Baron of Ramschag, wrote 
a " Biography of Illustrious Men." Waldram, Bishop of Stras- 
burg, wrote Elegies in Latin, and "Maxims of the Bible." 



84 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

The dismemberment of the Carlovingian monarchy was favorable 
to the development of the German language. In the tenth and 
eleventh centuries, great progress was made under the sovereigns of 
the houses of Saxony and Franconia. Witichind, a monk, wrote 
a "History of the Saxons" up to 937. Dithmar, Count of Walen- 
beck, wrote a " History of the Kings of Germany." The Abbe 
Nbtker translated the Psalms. Adelbold wrote " The History of 
the first Three Years of Henry II. of Germany." Lambert, a 
monk of Hersfeld, is a celebrated historian. He wrote " The His- 
tory of the Germans from the most ancient Times to 1077," in 
Latin. Hepidanus, a monk of St. Gall, wrote German history, 
also in Latin ; as well as Bruno, a monk of Saxony. Witteran 
put the Song of Solomon into the Frankish idiom. Wilhelm of 
Herschau formed a Latin encyclopedia. It is at the close of the 
eleventh century that we must place that singular production, en- 
titled " The Eulogy of Hanno ;" the author is not known. 

It was the custom of princes to retain minstrels in their courts, 
who were called minnesingers, or Singers of Love ; they were pecu- 
liarly encouraged under the emperors of the Swabian-Hohenstaufen 
dynasty ; for which reason this period is called the Swabian era. 
It is an epoch particularly celebrated and venerated by the Ger- 
mans. Wernher and Veldech were two of the earliest of the min- 
nesingers. " Ernest of Bavaria" is mentioned as one of Veldeck's 
poems. Zazichoven sang "Launcelet of the Lake." Von Aue 
sang u Ivan the Chevalier of the Lion." ' Ofterdingen is believed 
to be the collector of the poems which form the base of the 
" Niebelungen Lied," or Song of the Niebelungen. This poem has 
been called the Iliad of the Germans, and styled the grandest pro- 
duction of the Middle Ages. It consists of a series of legends, nar- 
rated in glowing language, and crowded with poetical beauties. The 
action of the poem lies in the time when Attila was warring with 
the Burgundians. Risbac and Bltcrolf were present with Ofter- 
dingen at the celebrated poetical meeting of Wartzburg. J?sch< • n- 
bach is the principal author of another celebrated work of this 
epoch, entitled the " Hcldcnbuch," or Book of Heroes. Reinbot 
von Dorn wrote "The Martyrdom of St. George." Freydank wrote 
m on " Modesty," in iambic verses of four feet. Enekel wrote 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 85 

"The Book of the Princes of Austria and Styria." Elko von 
Rapschow wrote the " Mirror of Saxony." Rodolph von Ansc, or 
Ems, was a prolific poet; his chief works are entitled, "Balaam 
and Josaphat;" "The Good Gerhard/' and " Wilhelm of Orleans." 

Otto IV, Count of Bottenlaube, was a poet of this age. Ulrwh 
von Lichtenstein was also celebrated as a poet. Conrad von Wuvz-. 
burg was still more so; he wrote "The War of Troy/' "The Ex- 
pedition of the Argonauts/' "The Golden Forge/' and other poems. 
Besides these poets of the Swabian era, there are many belonging 
to the thirteenth century, who are often mentioned, but the exact 
period of whose existence it is difficult to trace, as Merungun, 
Rugge, HUholt. Several princes and noblemen were poets of this 
epoch; as, Henry, Count of Anhalt; Conrad of Hohenstaufen ; 
Henry, Duke of Misnie; Henry, Duke of Breslau ; and many more. 
At the close of this century, a collection of laws was published, 
preceded by an introduction in prose : this is considered a remark- 
able monument of the state of the Swabian language. The author 
is not known. 

There is also much uncertainty relative to the elder poets of the 
fourteenth century. From the middle of the thirteenth century, 
Germany had had no repose from political commotions. The con- 
quest of Prussia by the Teutonic knights, the thirteen years inter- 
regnum in the sovereign authority, and a series of domestic tur- 
moils, kept poets and minstrels out of sight. Another school arose. 
The artisans formed corporations or societies, and cultivated poetry. 
Poetical meetings of shoemakers, tailors, weavers, &c. were held 
in all the principal towns of Germany. Their members were called 
meistersdnger. Regenbogen was one of the first of this class. 
Hadlouh was celebrated, but is generally placed among a superior 
rank. Trymberg was a sententious poet. Frankenstein left a 
manuscript under the title of " The Crucified." Hornek wrote a 
chronicle in rhyme. Meissen, called also Frauenlob (or Praiser of 
Ladies), formed one of the artisan schools at Frankfort. Ammen- 
hausen, a monk, wrote a poem on the game of Chess. Munchen 
continued a translation of the New Testament, in verse, begun by 

Von Ems. Reinhard of Westerberg wrote several pieces in the 
celebrated national collection called " The Chronicle of Limbourg." 
8 



86 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

Fleck put into German verse the story of " Rose and Whiteflower," 
from the French of Orbent. Muglin wrote canticles; also Quin- 
furt and Suclienwirth ; the latter wrote also historical poems. Ilein- 
ricli, called also Teiclincr (or the Ditcher), was celebrated for his 
sententious poesies. The prose writers of this period are not nume- 
rous. Reidesel wrote a " Chronicle of Hesse." Beliaim made a 
translation of the Bible. Mayenbarg translated " The Book of 
Nature/' from the Latin of Cantinpre. Tauler was the most re- 
markable prosaist of his age. His sermons, preached at Strasburg 
and Cologne, made an extraordinary impression. Herfort wrote 
" A History of the World/' in Latin. Professor Frankenstein left 
various works in the same tongue. 

The poets of the fifteenth century were few in number, and but 
slightly distinguished for talent. Buclieler wrote an epic poem, 
entitled " The Adventures of a Royal Daughter of France." 
Is'euenstadt wrote " The Marvelous History of Apollonius of Tyr- 
lande." Windier wrote " The Book of Virtue." Rothe left a 
" Chronicle of Thuringia." Wolkenstein composed canticles. 
Rosenplilt, of Nurnberg, was a licentious writer of comic pieces, 
called Carnival Farces. Folz, a barber of the same place, was 
another rhymester of similar taste. Gaspar von der Roen is be- 
lieved to be the collector of " The Book of Heroes." Weber, of 
Fribourg, is the most celebrated Swiss poet at the time of the wars 
of the independence. Scliernbery, a monk, is considered the author 
of the satirical drama of "Pope Joan." AmoDg the prose writers 
of this century, we find Tillman, who was author of the celebrated 
"Chronicle of the Lords of Limbourg," which was continued by 
Genslien. Turinger wrote the " Chronicle of Alsace." Wimlck 
wrote " The History of the Emperor Sigismond." Andreas, a 
priest of Ratisbon, wrote a "Chronicle from the Time of Jesus 
Christ to 1422." Nydhart translated " The Eunuch" of Terence. 
Fnrtner wrote the romance of "The Round Tabic of St. Gbraal/ ; 
Ringolfinge translated the romance of " Malusine" from the French. 
Steinkoevel was author of " A Chronicle of the World." Bixm- 
garten was one of the most remarkable translators of this age. 
IArar chronicled his times. Schilling collected the poems of 
/', before mentioned. Rcichenlhaller wrote a "History of the 



FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 87 

Council of Constance. " Albreclit von Eye was another celebrated 
translator, Under his pen we observe a marked progress of the 
language. Ilagen wrote one of those droll tales, which were so 
generally liked in this and the following century. His " Book of 
Fools" was one of the same class as the " Eulenspiegel," or Owl- 
mirror, the curious and witty expressions of which still excite amuse- 
ment, and which is an anonymous work of this period. Botha wrote 
" Chronicles of the Saxons." Stein translated " The Chevalier of 
Turn/' from the French. 

The invention of printing belongs to the fifteenth century. The 
Germans attribute it to their countryman Guttenberg, while the 
Dutch claim the honor for Coster. As printing became known, it 
produced a new era ; learning and science became of much easier 
acquirement, and the rapid progress of letters proclaimed the value 
of the invention. The establishment of universities at Prague, 
Vienna, Heidelberg, Cologne, and Leipzic, about this time, was 
another great step in furtherance of the mental progress of Germany. 
There was yet, however, another century to pass before the energies 
of the German mind became known to Europe. 

At the commencement of the sixteenth century, we must notice 
several of those satirical works which excited attention in their day, 
and are a peculiar feature of the times. Sebastian Brandt wrote a 
poem, entitled " The Ship of Fools." Baumann put into more 
modern German the satire of "lleineke the Fox." Greff wrote 
"The New Ass of Balaam." Murner wrote "The Conspiracy of 
Fools." To this period belong, also, most of those tales which are 
now more remarkable, as forming the basis of the German taste for 
the wonderful, than for their own merit. These " Volksbiicher" 
have one peculiar characteristic : there is an extraordinary simplicity 
in their style, and their language is of the fine old "wonder-teeming" 
words, which so delight the Germans. Pfinzing, secretary of the 
Emperor Maximilian L, wrote a singular poem, entitled "Twer- 
danck," and was crowned in honor of his talents. Hans Sachs was 
the last of the Meistersingers. He was a shoemaker of Nuremberg, 
and is one of the most remarkable and most prolific of these manu- 
facturing poets. He is said to have written no less than six thou- 
sand pieces of verse, as tragedies, comedies, histories, and carnival 



88 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

farces. Ayer introduced the opera, and was an abundant writer of 
comedies. Among the prose writers of the sixteenth century, Ccltes 
is noticed as one of the founders of the first learned societies of the 
Rhine and the Danube. Geiler von Keiscrberg was a powerful 
writer of religious discourses. Bebel was the preceptor of Melanch- 
thon, and a Latin author. The celebrated painter Albrecht Durer, 
left a work on "The Art of Fortifications," and one on "The Pro- 
portions of the Human Form." Count Nuenar wrote on the "His- 
tory of Ancient Germany." Turnmayr wrote " Chronicles of 
Bavaria." Kantzow wrote " Chronicles of Pornerania." Sebastian 
Frank was an industrious writer of historical " Chronicles." Con- 
rad Gessner was a celebrated naturalist of Zurich. He wrote " The 
History of Animals, of rare Plants, and of all kinds of Fossils." 
Tschudi is esteemed as a chronicler of Switzerland. Camerarim 
wrote elementary works on theology and history. FiscJiart is the 
last example of the naif style of the sixteenth century. His works 
have generally a comic character, and are chiefly as follows : 
"Consolation for the Gouty Man," "Matrimonial Discipline," 
" Garagantua," after Rabelais. Michel Neander founded the School 
ofllfeld. 

An interregnum of twenty-three years followed the reign of 
Conrad IV. Italy and Germany completed their revolution. With 
the succession of the House of Habsburg, chivalry began to decay, 
as well as that poesy which belonged to it. 

During the time that literature awoke in Italy beneath the care 
of Lorenzo de Medici and Leo X., Germany was agitated to its 
inmost centre by religious dissensions. Contentions and argument 
penetrated to the fireside of the lowliest cottage; and from the 
prince to the peasant religion alone occupied the mental power of 
this vast empire. Luther attracted the attention of all Europe. 
His style, vigorous and full of eloquence, proved that the German 
tongue was in no way behind others in strength of expression. His 
translation of the Bible is one of the finest specimens of the old 
classical German. Luther, Muscidus, and Arndt composed some 
fine poetry as hymns and sacred odes. Melanchthon was more gentle 
in his eloquence, and gained many advocates for church reform, in 
conjunction with Reuddin and Iluttcn; thus theological literature 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 89 

burst spontaneously into a prominent position in Germany. Agrippa, 
Zwvnglius, Glarcanus, Xylandcr, Bugenhagen, Tauhman, Buxtorf, 
Agricola were all theologians of repute. 

Imagination, that faculty of the mind for which the Germans 
have always been singularly remarkable, was overpowered in the 
strenuous battle for truth; and for a considerable time the glories 
of the sacred writings occupied the only taste for literature, which 
could be spared from the momentary struggle, to establish their 
principles in pristine purity. 

The reign of Charles V. of Germany, although as brilliant as 
that of any other prince in feats of arms, has left no traces of im- 
provement in the literature of his country. The monarch himself 
was openly opposed to the Protestant princes of Germany, though 
it is believed he privately favored their opinions : but his kingdom 
was at any rate occupied by military employments from this cause, 
as well as from the ambitious views of its sovereign. 

When Protestantism had settled into principle, its effect estab- 
lished, and its cause somewhat forgot, a metaphysical philosophy 
began to occupy the mental energies of the Germans; and the pub- 
lications relative to it were multiplied almost to the same degree as 
political tracts in the most factious period of a popular government. 
System succeeded system with the rapidity of fashions in dress. 
The reverence of classical literature by those who spent their whole 
youth in its study alone, the consequent familiarity with the lan- 
guage of those philosophers of Greece and Rome whose works had 
formed their taste, and, above all, the easy access to scholastic edu- 
cation, from the multiplicity of colleges and monasteries, are evident 
reasons for these sedate pursuits, at once natural and pleasing to the 
Germans. The first German grammar appeared about 1525. 
Poetry was not, however, forgotten. Paul Schecle, under the clas- 
sical name of Melissus, wrote elegies and other poems, and was 
crowned at Vienna when only twenty-two years old. Pete)" Denais 
wrote various minor poems. Rollenhagen translated with talent 
Homer's "Battle of the Frogs and Mice." A long period of 
lethargy followed the Reformation; the empire, reduced to the 
shadow of an august name, seemed hastening to its dissolution. 

The mystic writer Boehme appeared near the close of the six- 

8* 



90 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

teenth century; and the adoration he has received from the Romantic 
School in Germany, deserves to he remarked. His name was the 
Shibboleth of the age. He left a crowd of theosophic writings, 
and being in the German tongue instead of the Latin (which was 
used up to this period in Germany) they were widely circulated. 
The chief of them was "Aurora." The first Quakers took much 
of their system from him. Boehme was a shoemaker of Goerlitz. 
Kepler and Helmont were natural philosophers of this period. 

At the opening of the seventeenth century, religious and political 
quarrels pervaded the country, and the evangelical orthodoxy was 
not more favorable to literature than the dominion of the Jesuits 
in the Roman Catholic states. The war of thirty years tore in 
pieces the great body of Germany, and disunited its parts so com- 
pletely that they have never been reunited. At length, in a country 
where the German language is not even indigenous, poetry awoke. 
A Silesian, Martin Opitz, deserves the name of father of the Ger- 
man poetry; he eclipsed Meckerlin and Spee. Zinhgraff, Mosche- 
roschj and Olearius were cotemporary poets; and Paul Gerhard 
wrote "Lyrics for the Church and House." A little later, came 
Hqffmanswaldau and Lohenstein, poets of the Italian school. 
Flemming was remarkable for his lyrics; Logan for his epigrams; 
Gryph regenerated the theatre. Belinkhaus wrote moral dramas 
and satires. Rinkhart wrote the drama of "The Christian Knight 
of Eisleben." Weckerling is quoted for his purity of the German 
tongue. He wrote pastorals, odes, &c. Andrea was a critic of this 
age. Clai was one of the enthusiasts of the period. He wrote 
"The Combat of the Angels with the Dragons." He was a man 
of extraordinary adventures, and was crowned as poet. Schoch 
wrote a comedy, entitled "The Student's Life." Werder imitated 
Ariosto in heavy Alexandrian verses. Dach was a popular lyric 
poet. Scheffer, surnamed Angelus, wrote poems entitled "The 
Pleasures of the Soul," "Psyche afflicted," and others. Neumark 
wrote "The Garden of Pleasure," and other poems. Zesen wrote 
" The Torments of Love," and other poems of the same kind. All 
these were of the weak school of Marini, and are but little valued, 
save as examples of the taste of the age. Among the prose writers 
of the seventeenth century, we must mention Albertinus, author of 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 91 

"The Kingdom of Lucifer;" Amd, the author of a valuable work, 
entitled "True Christianity;" Stettler, who wrote " Annals of Hel- 
vetia." Horsdoerfer was an imitator of the affected writers of Spain 
and Portugal. He wrote " Game of Conversation for Ladies," and 
other prose works in the same style. Schrnppius was a critic of 
morals. Griffensohn was another satirist of the manners of the 
day. Buchofo, a romance writer of bad taste, belonged to his age. 
Blrhen was considered a good dramatic writer at that time. Darnel 
Major was distinguished as a naturalist. Puffendorfs great work 
on jurisprudence may be given as closing the seventeenth century. 

In commencing the eighteenth century, we may observe that 
theological despotism was beginning to calm. Spener preached a 
more gentle religion, and founded the Pietist sect. Frederick the 
Great of Prussia does not deserve to be placed among the German 
writers, for he neglected German intellect, and adopted the language 
of France. We have twenty-one volumes from his pen, consisting 
of history, philosophy, poems, and letters. At length Hatter, a 
native of German Switzerland, endeavored to show that the English 
literature better suited the taste of the Germans than the French. 
The learned Gottsched combated this opinion, and defended the 
classical models of France. The accomplished Bodmer agreed with 
Holler; and thus arose that long series of discussions, which formed 
the schools called classic and romantic, in German literature. "Die 
Alpen" is Holler's most celebrated production. To Bodmer the 
Germans are indebted for their general introduction to English 
literature. He translated the "Paradise Lost," wrote an epic poem 
called "Noah," "The Helvetic Library," "Fables of the Times of 
the Minnesingers," "Principles of the German Tongue," and various 
other works. Bodmer had a feeling of the advent of a better day 
for his country, and is more honored as the source of excellence in 
others, than for that which belonged to himself. As partial fol- 
lowers of Gottsched, a body of clever writers published a periodical 
magazine: Rabner undertook the prose satire of the work — his 
"Satires" have been published separately; Zaccharie gave heroics 
and satires; Gellert was a fabulist; Koestner wrote criticism and 
songs; Adolph Schlegel wrote odes, and Elias Schlegel advocated 
the drama : this last author is noticed as being the only dramatic 



92 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

writer of this new birth of German literature. Gleim was esteemed 
for his excellent fables, and was honored by the whole country with 
the title of Father; his popularity was shared by Peter Uz, the 
clever writer of many good songs and odes. Kleist deserves notice 
among those poets who ameliorated the language of Germany, and 
elevated her poetry. His best poem is " On Spring." Gunther 
was distinguished for his poetical satires and epistles. Koznig was 
remarkable for the facility and natural style of his poems. Kruger 
was popular as a comic poet, and wrote dramas. Mylius imitated 
the dramatic writings of other countries. Brawe wrote the tragedy 
of "Brutus" in iambic verses. Schiebeler was a writer of burlesque 
poems. Hartmann was a lyric poet of repute \ but was excelled by 
Hoelty, whose ballads are yet esteemed. Goetz, Lange, Schmidt of 
Luneberg, Blum, Gemmingen y Ebert, Gallish, Mastallier, Schatz, 
and Zaupser were all aspirants to public admiration as authors of 
minor poems, many of which are penned with talent and grace. 
Count Stolherg wrote the drama of " Belshazzar," and some clever 
translations from the Greek of Theocritus; he also translated So- 
phocles. His brother Leopold wrote the drama of " Theseus und 
der Siiuling," a dramatic fiction on the infancy of Homer; with 
several minor poems of merit. Breitinger wrote " A Treatise on 
Poetry and Painting," and showed great learning in antique art. 
Klopstock held the first rank in what was termed the English school, 
and Wieland in the French; but Klopstoch opened a new path for 
his countrymen, while Wieland was at once the first and last of his, 
in the eighteenth century. Klopstock, in imitating the English 
poets Milton and Young, touched in his countrymen that taste for 
sacred things which is so peculiar to them. At the age of twenty- 
three, he had published the first three books of a The Messiah," 
and the sensation which he produced was prodigious. Though gifted 
with an extraordinary degree of sensibility and imagination, they 
were united to a most elevated feeling of religion, and never misled 
him. His wife, Meta Klopstock, is known to us through her own 
beautiful letters to our novelist Richardson. 

Before the time of Kiojpstock, the Christian world was in posses- 
sion of two remarkable poems; one from the pen of Dante, who 
drew his materials from the Fathers of the Church: ond one from 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 93 

Milton, who used the Old Testament as the foundation of his epic. 
Klopstock took the New Testament for his, and he has drawn from 
the divine simplicity of the Gospel a poetic charm which in no way 
spoils its purity. Wldaud has been styled the Voltaire of Ger- 
many \ and there is much of the grace and facility of the Frenchman 
in his writings. He was honored by the principal academies of 
Europe, and Napoleon sent him the Cross of Honor. In his poetry, 
he resembles Ariosto, but is infinitely more informed than Voltaire, 
and more connected than Ariosto; though his philosophical romance, 
entitled " The Dangers of Enthusiasm/' has contrasts of gravity and 
gayety which are too abrupt. His poem of " Oberon" is more justly 
celebrated; it is eminently graceful, interesting, and moral. At the 
same time appeared Rainier, a writer of good odes, Winkelmann in 
the arts, Lessing in criticism, and Goethe in general literature; thus 
forming a decided German school. Gessner, a Swiss poet, is almost 
liked more in France than Germany; but his "Idyls," and "Death 
of Abel," find admirers in every country. Zimmermann, another 
Swiss, has been much admired as the author of an "Essay on Soli- 
tude j" he also wrote a poem " On the Earthquake at Lisbon, in 
1755," and several philological works. Liclitenberg' s witty com- 
mentary on the paintings of Hogarth are of this period. It was 
now that the national literature was rapidly gaining the ascendency. 
It is true, the great philosopher Leibnitz had given immense value 
to the Latin tongue, by using it generally, and that he was followed 
by Wolf; but others had succeeded in having the native language 
taught, and used as a conveyance of all the other studies in colleges. 
Wolf originated the idea that the " Iliad" was not from one author, 
but a collection of poems, afterwards made up into one. Wolf and 
Heyne were brilliant antagonists, and enthusiastic lovers of classic 
lore. Lessing was considered as superior to all the German classical 
writers of this century, and exerted himself very successfully to 
combat the taste of imitating an indifferent Greek style, and in op- 
posing the superstitions of religion. His writings gave a new im- 
pulse, and his countrymen began to read Shakspeare, and dared to 
call themselves Germans in Germany; and, in short, established 
the rights of originality in lieu of the yoke of French correction. 
The finest productions of Lessing are considered to be the dramas 



94 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

of "Minna von Barnhelm," "Emilia Galotti," and "Nathan der 
Weise." His plays are much valued by the critic Schlegel, and 
he is generally admired by the French. Lessing befriended Men- 
delsohn, and they were co-laborers in " The German Library," the 
first review known in Germany, and conducted by Nicolai, who 
wrote a tale in imitation of the "Yicar of Wakefield," called "Se- 
baldus Nothanker." Mendelsohn is looked upon as a profound phi- 
losopher; his chief work is entitled "Pksedon." Mosheim had long 
been regarded as the Fenelon of Germany. Thomasius had dis- 
tinguished himself for his law learning; and founded the first pro- 
fessorship of that science. Fabricius had gained celebrity as a 
learned bibliographer. Crusius, and the two brothers Baumgarten, 
were philosophers of the same period. In the mean time, Michaelis 
enriched his country with his learned "Introduction to the New 
Testament/' and "Commentaries on the Laws of Moses." Eichorn 
is remarkable for his works on Scriptural Antiquities, Classical and 
Oriental subjects, and Philosophical criticism. Salzer and Abbt 
were also learned inquirers of this time. Lichtwer, as a fabulist; 
Gerstenberg, as a lyric and dramatic writer; Goiter, as a writer of 
elegies, songs, and comedies; Musseus, as a satirist; with the romance 
writers, Jung, Lafontaine, Meissner, Krugge, Munchausen, Jacobs, 
and Madame Nauberf, and the antiquarians Winhelmann and Boet- 
tiger: all gave lustre to the end of the eighteenth and beginning of 
the nineteenth centuries. Moeser wrote "Essays," and *' Political 
Tales;" also the "History of Osnabruch." Sturz nas elegantly 
written the "Life of Count Bernsdorff." Adelung and Oampe 
wrote grammar as philosophers. In the latter half of the eighteenth 
century," political freedom was unknown in Germany; but the men 
of letters had opened the minds of the people, and liberty of opinion 
spread rapidly among them. Lessing, Herder, Wieland, Lavater, 
Jung, had all contributed to this awakening of noble sentiments; 
but when Goethe appeared, the real revolution and reformation of 
German letters ensued. 

Goethe might stand as the representative of the entire body of 
German literature ; not that he is the best writer in every style, but 
that his talents comprised all that is peculiar to German intellect. 
The first effort of his pen was a drama, composed about the year 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. {)! 

1707. "Goetz von Berlichingen" was also one of bis earliest pro- 
ductions, and in it he gives full scope to his sentiments of political 
freedom. "Clavigo," a tragedy, soon followed: it is valued for the 
truth of coloring in the domestic scenes of humble life. Goethe's 
novel of " Werther" next appeared, founded on some events in real 
life which had deeply impressed the author. 

His predilection for theatrical amusements induced him to write 
two operas, "Erwin and Elrnire," and "Claudine von Villa Belta;" 
and being placed in a high position at the court of Saxe Weimar, 
he was able by his talents and patronage to establish a decided 
German stage. Here this poet's beautiful dramatic compositions 
rapidly succeeded each other. "Iphigenie auf Tauris," "Torquato 
Tasso," " Count Egniont," have all won immortal honors for Goethe. 
His most remarkable poem, however, is the drama of " Faust;" 
which is so singular, though in parts so wonderfully fraught with 
genius, that critics have agreed to leave it uncriticised, no two minds 
being able to regard it in the same light. The versatile poet next 
tried his strength in an epic, and produced "Hermann and Doro- 
thea;" he also wrote two comedies, namely, "Der Grosscopta," and 
" Biirgergeneral." Goethe's minor poems are so many masterpieces, 
which have been largely imitated by his admiring countrymen. In 
prose composition he was equally great in point of style; his " Wil- 
helm Meister," and "Die Wahlverwandtschaften," are well-known 
romances; then we have "Das Leben Benvenuto Cellinis," Goethe's 
"Thoughts on Italy," his " Farbenlehre," and "Letters," all of 
which attest his varied talents. It has been said of Goethe, that 
whoever understands beauty, simplicity, symmetry, grace, ease, and 
cheerfulness can alone appreciate his genius. But, although looked 
upon as one of the most highly gifted of men, Goethe's position as 
an author is one which creates warm argument. No writer has met 
with greater fanatical admiration, or more unqualified reprobation. 
Goethe's presence, aided by the intelligent Duke and Duchess of 
Weimar, rendered that city the resort of all the learned and the 
tasteful. It has been called the Athens of Germany; and Etters- 
berg, Wilhelmstal, and Ilmenau are to the Germans what the Por- 
tico, the Academic groves, and the banks of the Ilyssus were to the 
Greeks. At Weimar, the plays of Terence used to be acted in 



96 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

Latin, and exceedingly enjoyed; but there must be a really classical 
society for such an enjoyment, such as then existed in this charming 
city; where not only such men as Goethe and Schiller lived, but 
where Wieland, the two Scldeyels, Herder, Einsicdal, Madame 
Wolzogen, Amelia Imhoff, and the clever actor and dramatic writer 
Ifland, all distinguished in literature, shed lustre over this retreat 
of the G-erman muse. 

While Goethe resided in his civil capacity at Weimar, Schiller 
was attached to the university of Jena; and when the latter began 
to publish his periodical paper, called "The Hours," Goethe was 
delighted to join him in correcting the false principles in philosophy, 
taste, and morals, which at that time (1794) defaced much of the 
literature of Germany, in common with that of the greater part of 
Europe. This correspondence, once begun, was never to close but 
with the life of one of them; and their letters are well worth an 
attentive perusal. Schiller is considered, by his countrymen in 
general, as a greater poet than Goethe. 

Schiller, unlike the fortunate Goethe, was destined to struggle 
with life's difficulties. It was in penury and obscurity that he 
wrote the plays of " The Robbers," " Fiesco," " Cabal and In- 
trigue." At last, he accepted the office of poet to the theatre at 
Manheim, where he was happy because he was free, and surrounded 
with friends who loved and honored him. In the maturity of his 
age, his writings were distinguished for that sublime purity which 
ever springs from exalted thoughts. The beautiful tragedies of 
"Don Carlos," " Marie Stuart," "William Tell," and "Joan of 
Arc" rapidly succeeded each other. Then followed his fine dra- 
matic poem, entitled " Wallenstein;" and his "History of the 
Thirty Years' War," and " History of the Revolution of the Low 
Countries." The noble principles of Schiller s heroes, their en- 
thusiastic love of their country, combined with those glorious aspi- 
rations for liberty which vibrate through every nerve of the reader, 
and the richly poetic descriptions of landscape beauties, rentier this 
poet one of the most pleasing in the world. Lavat-r, the well- 
known physiognomist, was, at this time, a most zealous minister, 
and was unwearied in behalf of practical Christianity. His intense 
earnestness, when preaching, was a most impressive picture. He 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 97 

was a prolific author. In another part of the country, Schroech 
was fornimg his voluminous " History of the Christian Church, and 
its continuation since the Reformation;" a colossal work, which he 
left unfinished. Werner was a dramatic poet of no little merit ; 
his pieces are, however, only beautiful when we look in them for 
songs, odes, religious and philosophical thoughts; but with these 
to distinguish them, they cannot be represented. One of them is 
entitled "Luther;" and one would imagine the author thought only 
of propagating a certain religious mysticism, rather than to present 
a theatrical amusement. " Attila" is another, which we may de- 
signate as a sublime and powerful conception. Werner wrote also 
some tales of peculiar interest; as, " The Sons of the Valley/' and 
" The Cross on the Shores of the Baltic." Goethe used to say of 
Werner's bent of mind, that it was a perverse religiosity. Kotzebue 
was a comic dramatic poet, without whom the Germans could boast 
of little of worth in comedy. It is not in the spirit of the nation. 
Cunning and hypocrisy, with the meaner sins of domestic life, give 
the worthy Germans too much pain to create their laughter; they 
are susceptible of comedy only in exaggerated foibles or ludicrous 
peccadillos. Kotzebue was poet to the theatre of Vienna; his 
dramas had immense success ; but he was singularly deficient in 
the sentiment of patriotism, and accepted situations of an ignoble 
character under the Russian government, in which he bestowed so 
little respect for the feelings of his countrymen, that, for fame and 
money, it was said, he would have sold his pen to the Devil. He 
was assassinated by a young enthusiast, named Sand, who believed 
fervently that he was ridding Germany of a monster. Kotzebue 
was a very prolific writer, and succeeded in various styles ; he edited 
the " Literary Week," a journal at Manheim, and wrote largely for 
it. His dramas are published in several volumes, and many of 
them are known in translations, throughout Europe. He wrote 
"Recollections of Paris," and "Recollections of Naples;" also a 
" History of Prussia," and conducted another journal, called " The 
Free Speaker." Burger holds distinguished rank as a poet, and was 
cotemporary with Goethe and Schiller, His love of the marvel- 
ous renders him a general favorite ; and he, above all others, has 
ably used the vein of superstition which so deeply touches the 
9 



98 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

heart. His poems of "Lenora" and u . The "Wild Huntsman" are 
universally known and admired. 

The two brothers Scldegel are both renowned. William Schlegel, 
so well known for his critical judgment, has not, in his poetry, per- 
mitted himself to deviate in the slightest degree from the estab- 
lished rules of taste. His "Elegies" are written with a finely sus- 
tained delicacy and great classical beauty ; he has ably translated 
Shakspeare, and, being a man of extraordinary attainments, may be 
said to have reveled in the luxuries of literature' beyond all modern 
authors. His correctness of judgment is said to rival the united 
powers of Pope, Johnson, and Parr. William SchlegeVs work on 
" Dramatic Literature" is extensively known and valued. He was 
a critic, philologist, poet, philosopher, and man of the world; full 
of talent, and also full of modesty. William Schlegel is immortal- 
ized by Madame de Stael as the Prince Castel Forte, the faithful, 
humble, unaspiring friend of Corinne. Tiech is the literary colos- 
sus of Dresden. He is an original poet, and a powerful writer. 
His knowledge of English literature was extensive and profound; 
and he devoted several years to the translation and illustration of 
Shakspeare, in conjunction with William Schlegel. It is to be hoped 
that some translator will do Tiech an equal justice; for he is but 
slightly known to our reading world. 

Frederick Schlegel, in his knowledge of languages, equaled Sir 
William Jones. He occupied himself chiefly in philosophy ; one 
of his best works is entitled " The Philosophy of History." His 
talents and information were of the first class. The two Schlegels, 
Tiech, Novalis, and Wachenroder united their intellectual powers in 
a publication called " The Musenalmanach," which filled all Ger- 
many with delight and discussion. But we must look back at some 
of the prose writers of the eighteenth century, not yet named. 
Sulzer was a natural philosopher of Switzerland. He wrote " Con- 
siderations on the Works of Nature." Iselin was a celebrated phi- 
lanthropist. His chief works are " The Patriot," " Dreams of a 
Friend of Humanity," and others on the same subject. Moser was 
a writer of prodigious fecundity; his works amount to some hun- 
dreds of volumes, and arc chiefly on Law. llamann was called 
the Magi of the North, and wrote on mora] philosophy. Basedow 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 99 

is celebrated for his works on religion and education. ./. Bode 
translated Montaigne and Sterne. Christopher Bode was a learned 
orientalist. Schlosser wrote on philosophical and political subjects, 
and is greatly esteemed. 

The Germans have taken particular delight in examining the 
mysteries of the creation, the formation of ideas in the human mind, 
and the exercise of our faculties. The venerable Kant, living in 
the most secluded manner, found no greater happiness than in em- 
ploying his intellect on those subjects that belong to the nobler por- 
tion of our being. It is not possible to find an example among the 
ancients, where the principles professed were more rigidly or more 
constantly acted upon than with the German philosopher Kant. 
For some time, his work, entitled " A Criticism of Pure Reason," 
or, in other words, an examination of our primitive faculties, was 
little known; but, when the store of ideas it contains was discovered, 
the sensation produced in Germany was such that the literary and 
philosophic in every branch were powerfully influenced through- 
out the empire. At the time the work appeared, there existed but 
two great modern systems of observation on the human understand- 
ing : one, that of our philosopher, Locke, which attributes our ideas 
to our sensations; the other that of Des Cartes and Leibnitz, which 
endeavors to prove the soul a free agent. Kant sought to trace the 
limits of the two empires of sense and of soul, — of exterior nature, 
and interior nature; and the ability with which he has done this 
will not be easily equaled. Succeeding philosophers, while they 
admired, yet found fault with Kant; and in this, as in all human 
science, a new and ever-varying train of reasoning may follow to 
perpetuity. Jacobi, Ficlite, and Schelling presented fresh ideas to 
their countrymen; and many of these ideas are of the most enno- 
bling nature. Schelling is especially to be noticed; his sublime 
" Treatise on Natural Philosophy," and his " Philosophy of Nature," 
having placed him in the first rank of the writers of Germany. 
Jacobi is to be admired for his mild and lofty wisdom ; the devout- 
ness, the benignity, and the calm grandeur of his philosophical 
views. Ficlite wrote " On the Destination of Man;" " The Inter- 
nal Self;" and on " The Nature of the Scholar, and its Manifesta- 
tions." Hegel was a brother philosopher of the same age, whose 



100 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

system was only the historical sequel of anterior schemes, and is 
conveyed in very learned and abstruse language. Henry Schubert 
wrote " The History of the Soul/' and other works tending towards 
his favorite research after the absolute. Frederick Schlegel then 
imported the singular and frequently beautiful ideas of the Eastern 
nations ; awakening those fancies of a race of Pre- Adamites which 
have again in their succession found both acquiescers and disbeliev- 
ers. Thus, it is natural for the unthinking to ask — Of what use, 
then, is all this ? Of what use is the grace presented by the sculp- 
tor, or the magic power of the painter? Of what use is all that is 
only beautiful ? It speaks to the soul, it whispers of that heaven 
from which we are exiled, and awakens the desire to regain it. 
Thus it is that philosophy (the beauty of thought) proves the dig- 
nity of man ; for he can occupy himself with the invisible and the 
eternal, although his grosser nature for awhile separates him from 
them. Hipjpel conveyed his philosophy in humorous tales, as in the 
" Lebenslaufe," in the same manner as F. H. Jacobi. Fries and 
Bouterwek were philosophers, amalgamating and smoothing the 
opinions of Kant and Jacobi. From Fries we have the novel of 
"Julius and Evagoras;" and from Bouterwek, "Die Religion der 
Vernunft." Ancillon's " Uber wahre Grosse," Teimemann's " Phi- 
losophy," Solger's " Esthetik," belong to this class of writings. 
The regular historians of Germany are generally writers of great 
merit, and their works are fully appreciated. Schlozer's " General 
History of the North," and " History of Lithuania," are copious 
and good. Schmidt wrote eleven volumes of " The History of the 
Germans," which has been continued by Dresch, and is a standard 
work. Schlosscr is a later writer ; his " History of the Iconoclast 
Emperors" ranks high; but Schiller's " Revolutions of the Low 
Countries" is one of the finest works in the language, and awakens 
both pleasure and interest by the noble sentiments of liberty and 
toleration which embellish it. John Miiller is diffusely eloquent. 
He was a native of Switzerland, and his annals of that country do 
honor to his mind and feelings; his account of the Rutli conspiracy 
excites the liveliest interest. Ott/ried Miftler was a native of Si- 
lesia. His " History of the Dorians," and other works, are well 
known in England. The excellent Herder has left a good work, en- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 101 

titled " The Philosophy of History;" and which is, perhaps, of all 
German productions, one of the most pleasingly written. The chap- 
ters on Persepolis and Babylon, on the Hebrews and the Egyptians, 
are truly delightful. Amidst a vast variety of writings from the 
pen of Herder, we must signalize his poem of " The Cid," which is 
especially admired by the Spaniards. I feel compelled to place the 
great historian J\ T iebu7ir among the German literati • for, although 
born in Copenhagen, he was brought up from an infant in German}', 
and wrote in her tongue. At Berlin, he wrote " Memoirs on the 
Roman Colonies," and paved the way for a system of agricultural 
colonization. His profound views contributed greatly to the esta- 
blishment of the University of Berlin, where he gave lectures on 
Roman history. This he afterwards put into the form of a regular 
work, entitled " The History of Borne ;" and what he has completed 
is of the first class of excellence. Zscliokke has written " A His- 
tory of the Princes and People of Bavaria," and dramas and tales, 
besides moral philosophy. We have also " A History of the Eng- 
lish Revolution," from Dahlmann. Duller' s " Maria Theresa and 
her Times '" Becker's " Roman Scenes of the Times of Augustus," 
&c. ; Hitter's " History of Philosophy ;" Gervinus's " History of 
German Literature;" Beckman's " History of Inventions;" Becker's 
"Weltgeschichte," and " Historical Tales;" Rottech's "Die Allge- 
meine Weltgeschichte;" Ranke's " History of the Popes," and 
" History of the Reformation," both works ably translated into 
English by Mrs. Austin; Heeren's well-known historical productions, 
and the historical works of Arndt, Leo, Returner, and Gcerres, all of 
which have decided merit. 

Schubart was a man of wild and ardent enthusiasm; his best 
poem is called "Der ewige Jude." Blumauer travestied the 
iEneid. Matihison was a writer of pensive verses ; his best poem 
is " Elysium." Seewis had the same tone of composition. HebeVs 
best piece is "Die Weise," a pastoral. Buerde is distinguished for 
his piety and harmony; he translated the "Paradise Lost." Conz 
translated JEschylus, and wrote " Gesanges Macht." Halen is more 
valued in his biographical works, "The Life of Count Munich" and 
" Peter the Great," than in his poems. RfejfeZ is known as the 
author of some good fables in verse and tales, and some feeble 

9* 



102 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

dramatic productions. Kind has great fancy and scenic effect in 
his poems; "Der Freischtitz," as a drama, is from his pen, and 
som« agreeable minor pieces, as "Der Stieglitz" and the legend 
" Der Grosse Christoph." Eberliard is the clever writer of " Hann- 
chen und die Kiichlein." Schulze is highly graceful and ideal; 
" Csecilie" is his chief poem. Count Platen has been highly dis- 
tinguished as a poet ; his " G-azeln" are beautiful examples of grace j 
his comedies have much merit, and he was a satirist of considerable 
talent. PyrTcer's best poem is "Rodolph von Habsburgh." Zed- 
litz is renowned for his " Todtenkranze," as a poem, and for several 
dramas on the Spanish model. Theodore Koerner, Maurice Arrtdt, 
and Schenhendorf 'are distinguished as the patriotic trinity of poets; 
their war-songs are full of fire and energy. 

We have yet to name a class of lyric poets, styled " The Suabian 
School." Of these, Uhland holds the first rank; his "Popular 
Songs," and patriotic drama of " Ernst von Schwaben," are espe- 
cially noticed. Kerner is highly imaginative, and more spiritualized 
than Uhland. JSchioabbe is clever in describing scenery, and is an 
ardent imitator of Uhland. Ruechert has great command of lan- 
guage: his "Bausteine" are charming poems. Lenan's poem of 
" Savonarola" has great beauties. Anastasius Griln has imitated 
the Nibelungenlied, in narrating the deeds of the Emperor Maxi- 
milian I. Gaudy is a beautiful versifier, smooth and flowing, and 
possessing much grace of expression; he is a general favorite in his 
original pieces, and has well translated several of Beranger's. Frcili- 
grath has been greatly and deservedly admired by his countrymen 
for his ingenious and very original compositions ; his versification 
is musical, and he has given variety to his poems by the introduc- 
tion of the marvelous scenes of other countries, and the wild beau- 
ties of nature in other climes. " The Traveler's Vision" and " The 
Emigrants" are cited among his best poems. Hoffman con Fallers- 
leben is clever in humorous political songs. Beckc is an enthusiastic 
lyrist, who adopts the questions of the day for the subjects of his 
muse. Kopitscli has great originality in the forms of his verse. 
Simrock has written many beautiful ballads. Pfizer is a follower 
of Uhland. Weseriberg and Knappe are poets of great sweetness 
on religious subjects. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 103 

To this list must be added the writers distinguished as "Young 
Germany;'' who rendered themselves obnoxious to all well-thinking 
people by the extravagance of their opinions. Gutzkoiv, Laube, 
Heine, Mundt, and Wwnbarg were the chief. Heine's tragedies 
are of very indifferent repute, although possessing occasional beau- 
ties; but his prose works are full of grace and spirit. Gutzkoio's 
"Blasedow" is written in imitation of Richter; Laube' s work on 
German literature is esteemed; Mundt is valued for his criticisms; 
Wienharg was less influenced by the refined sensualism and elegant 
lyrics of Heine than Lauhe; Wienbargr's "Holland in 1831 and 
1832/' and his "Account of Heligoland/' are esteemed. Eichen- 
dorf and F. Mueller are poets of the Romantic Ideal School. 

The philosophic humorists are a class of writers almost peculiar 
to Germany. Langbein has written witty and amusing stories, and 
several good ballads. ThilmmeVs " Wilhelmine" is full of drollery, 
and is of classical reputation in its line. NbvaMs is one of the 
purest ideal writers; his " Heinrich von Ofterdingen" is a novel 
full of lofty and sublime reflections. But Jean Paid Richter is the 
most remarkable writer of this class. His works, in sixty volumes, 
are, however, no less multifarious than extensive; embracing sub- 
jects of all kinds, from the highest problems of philosophy, and the 
most passionate poetic delineations, to " Golden Rules for the 
Weather Prophet," and " Instructions in the Art of Falling 
Asleep." His chief productions, however, are a species of novels, 
of which "Titan" and "Hesperus" are the largest and the best; 
but the term novelist, as we understand it, would ill describe so 
vast and discursive a genius ; for, with all his grotesque tumultuous 
pleasantry, Richter is a man of truly earnest, nay, high and solemn 
character; and seldom writes without a meaning far beyond the 
sphere of common romances. His beloved topic was the immor- 
tality of the soul; and he died while engaged in enlarging and re- 
modeling a work on this subject. The unfinished manuscript was 
borne upon his coffin to the burial vault; and Klopstock's hymn, 
" Thou shalt raise my Soul," can seldom have been sung with more 
appropriate application than over the grave of Richter. There is, 
however, in his writings that which dies not; that beauty and earn- 
estness of soul, that spirit of humanity, of love, of mild wisdom and 



104 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

humor, over which the vicissitudes of mode have no sway; this is 
that excellency which alone confers immortality on writings. 

Theodore Hoffmann's fantastic genius is known throughout Eu- 
rope ; his " Tales" are the delight of readers of all ages, as being 
full of pleasant humor and deep meaning. Benzel is highly divert- 
ing; u Das goldne Kalb" is one of his best efforts. Saphir, Glas- 
brenner, Mises, and Lax are writers in the same style. The tales 
of Lewis Tieck are of a different cast; his style is distinguished as 
peculiarly characteristic of his country, and his writings bear the 
impression of the Middle Ages. Some of his best stories are " Phan- 
tasus," " Liebeszauber," " Die Gemalde," " Der Gelehrte." His 
genius is discursive and his mind highly polished, so that he has 
tried his powers in a variety of other forms of composition, and is 
one of the most distinguished of G-erman living authors. Lev: is 
von Arnim had the true spirit of the Romantic School; in other 
words, he placed the soul as the chief source of intellect, and ad- 
dressed himself to all the nobler ideas and sentiments of man. His 
" Grafin Dolores" and " Isabelle von iEgypten" are considered 
the best of his novels. Chamisso's " Peter Schlemil" may be 
placed among the humorist productions; his lyric productions are 
original and often masterly. Tieck, Fovque, and Arnim have also 
considerable reputation as poets. Lewis, King of Bavaria, has 
written some pleasing lyrics. Toss has ably translated Homer, 
Hesiocl, Virgil, and Theocritus; and his own idyls are much 
esteemed. Menzel is a powerful critic and historiographer. Jacob 
Grimm is noted for his German grammar, and for his enthusiastic 
devotion to the ancient literature of his country; his brother, Wil- 
liam Grimm, has written also on the old German literature. 

Although Grilprazer be far inferior in genius to Goethe and 
Schiller, he is looked upon as decidedly the best of those numerous 
minor poets who have written, with a sort of mania, for the stage. 
Byron's praise, however, stamped the seal of true poetry on the 
writings of Grilprazer. But we must mention now a great num- 
ber of dramatic writers, who have endeavored to amuse their coun- 
trymen, if not to instruct them. Their works are generally very 
mediocre; but, as a phase of the German literature, they must be 
noticed here. We will first name Grilprazer's best pieces; which 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 105 

are, " The Woman Ancestor," " Sappho," " The Golden Fleece," 
u The Dream of Life," which is a tender graceful play. Grilpra- 
zer is considered to have followed Werner and Millner. The most 
remarkable work of Werner is a tragedy, called " Der 24te Feb- 
ruar." The best play of the last named is " The Maid of Albania/' 
" The Guilt" was also successful. From his very quarrelsome na- 
ture, and savage disputes with poets and booksellers, M. Millner 
was called the wild beast of Weissenfels, a little town where he esta- 
blished a theatre. Honivald infused the tastes of Werner and 
Kotzebue into his plays; his best are, " The Going Home," "The 
Pharos," " The Portrait." Then came some disciples of Schiller, 
at a very humble distance; less successful than the above, but well 
known in Germany. " Earner's " Zriny," and " Rosamunde;" Ma- 
li/z's " Old Student," and " Hans Kohlas;" Sclienk's " Belisarius." 
Auffenberg took history for the base of his dramas, and wrote " The 
Lion of Curdistan;" "Pizarro" and "Xerxes" are his best. Ucli- 
tritz was successful in his " Alexander and Darius '" Zedlitz in 
" The Star of Seville;" each of these was popular in his day; but 
at length Raupacli swallowed up all these little reputations, and, 
although far from great in talent himself, contrived to usurp the 
whole stage of Germany for at least ten years. He was the Scribe 
of Germany, and, in spite of critics, has made a splendid fortune. 
In 1826, his piece of "Isidore and Olga" had amazing success; 
also his "Tasso," " School of Life," " A Hundred Years Ago ;" 
and besides innumerable others, seven volumes of historical dramas 
on the subject of " Hohenstaufen." Grabbe succeeded Rawpach, 
but was unsuccessful; he endeavored to introduce another style, 
wrote captiously against Shakspeare and his admirers, believed him- 
self a splendid poet, and died in misery, consumed with jealousy, 
yet decidedly gifted. Karl Immermann 's best tragedies are 
" Alexis," " The Victims of Silence," and " The Tragedy of the 
Tyrol." After these, followed what the Germans call effect pieces. 
The Princess Amelia, of Saxony, under the name of Amelia Heiter 
(serene), wrote with simplicity and sentiment, and a sound though 
commonplace moral. Her best plays are " Falsehood and Truth," 
" The Farmer," and " The Pupil." The Duke of Mecklenburg 



106 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

took the name of W&isshaupt (Whitehead), and wrote " The Iso- 
lated Ones/' remarkable for its good dialogue. 

Frederick Holm wrote "Greseldis," "The Alchyinist," "The 
Son of the Desert/' and many other dramas. Mosen wrote " Otto 
III.," and "The Bride of Florence." Karl Gutzfiow was more 
original and more fortunate in the tragedy of " Monaldeschi," and 
the comedy of " Rococo j" but comedy is the barren side of the 
German theatre. Bauer nf eld is quoted as its best supporter. The 
people of Vienna delight in merry nonsense, and have pieces en- 
titled, "Popular Comedies," "Magic Drollery," "Local Farce," 
"Vienna Piece;" this last is synonymous with all that is laughable. 
Raimund must close this list, and is reserved the last as being not 
the least. Original and clever, simple-hearted and pure, Raimund 
was always teaching contentedness by means as innocent as they 
were delightful; and, though his pretty verses are full of gayety, 
with minglings of dreams, and wonders, and spirits, yet they have 
much earnest reality; but the stage is decidedly in a very low con- 
dition in Germany, both as to authors and acters. 

We must notice Eicliendorff and La Motte Fouque as among the 
best modern novelists; also Sternberg, Amelia von Schoppe, and 
blind George Lotz. FouquS has, however, but little judgment; his 
best tales are "The Magic Ring," "Undine," "The Hero of the 
North," "Sigurd the Serpent Killer." Kind was both novelist and 
dramatist of second-rate excellence. Heller's "Tales from the 
South," TarnowsM's "Wood Demons," and "The Tales" of Dr. 
Toepfer deserve popularity. Immermann's story of "Mun- 
chausen" is a clever satire on the present age of intellect in Ger- 
many. Heinrich Steffen's "Facts and Feelings from Life" is a work 
replete with interest. Iloffmeister' s "Life of Schiller" is valued. 
Bouterwek's "History of Poetry and Eloquence among the Moderns" 
is celebrated, and more especially that portion of it which treats of 
the literature of Spain. Schoeffer assisted in Dr. Valpy's edition 
of the classics. 

German travelers generally write with gayety and amiability. 
Bvsegger's "Travels in Egypt;" IleugcVs "Travels in Cashmere;" 
"Naples and the Neapolitans," by Mayer} the lively Countess 
Halm Halm; and the indefatigable Prince Puchler Muskau, have 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 107 

all delighted the public of Germany; while all Europe has enjoyed 
the travels of the scientific and enlightened Alexander von Humboldt, 
which have been most ably rendered into English by Maria Williams. 
His " Kosrnos," which Colonel Sabine has made familiar to English 
readers, will carry his name down to the latest posterity. 

Among the modern industrious literary men of Germany, John 
Frederick Cotta has displayed great zeal as a publisher. Cotta is 
the Aldo Manuzio of Germany; he had that superior tact which 
discovers real genius; and by his encouragement and perseverance, 
several of the most distinguished writers of his country have been 
preserved from oblivion. He it was who also founded many of the 
best literary Journals, in the direction of which he was aided by 
the first men of talent. Cotta was created a baron, and has received 
innumerable honors from cotemporary princes. 

In no country of Europe has there been more earnest labor in 
biblical research and religious philosophy than in Germany. Fred- 
eric Strauss, with his " Life of Jesus," is at the head of one party 
at the present day. An opposite party is headed by Neander; 
while the writings of the celebrated polemics Schleiermacher and 
Marheineke form the connecting links between the two parties. 

There are also distinguished writers of the Jewish persuasion; 
the acute inquirer Zunz, and his fellow-laborers Furst and Jost, 
Manheimer, Riesser, &c. The learned Dr. Geiger is remarked for 
his liberality of sentiments, in this persuasion. 

In Oriental literature, the Germans have many learned inquirers : 
as, Gesenius, Bopp, Freytag, Rosenmi'dler, Ewald, &c. 

In ancient German literature, Yonder Hagen, Biisching, Beneche, 
Lachmann, Schmeller, &c. are distinguished. Dr. Wolff, Professor 
of Modern Literature at the University of Jena, has enriched his 
country with many valuable works, both original and critical. His 
"Selections from the German Poets/' from the "French Poets," 
and from the "Italian Poets," each with biographical notes, are all 
much valued. 

As political philosophers, they have Savigny, Stahl, Hullmann, 
Welcker, Schubert, who are elaborate jurists. 

In natural philosophy, the most eminent writers are Alexander 
von Humboldt, Buch, Oken, Link, Broicn, Erichson, Encke, &c. &c. 



108 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

There is a species of publication much delighted in by the Ger- 
mans (and which the English have of late years, in some degree, 
imitated), that must not be omitted here. I mean the Annuals, or 
Pockcl-boo7es. The German annuals have long been admitted within 
the literary pale, and the greatest men have voluntarily chosen this 
vehicle of communication with the public. Goethe continued to the 
last to present, in this manner, his New Year's greeting to his coun- 
trymen. Schiller's "Thirty Years' War" was written for a lady's 
almanac; the philosophic Kant and Jacobi, the majestic Klopstoch, 
the wild and original Hoffmann, have, in this insinuating form, in- 
structed the public with their wisdom, or delighted and agitated it 
with their striking and grotesque contributions. Here the graceful 
"Undine" of Fouque' first awakened sympathy for her fate; Apel, 
with the invisible world at his command, bewitched us with his dark 
and terrible fantasies; Laun, with his alternate tales of broad humor 
and romance ; Lafontaine, with his calm domestic pictures of Ger- 
man life; Blumenhagen and Vandervelde, with their sketches of 
chivalry and the Middle Ages; Richter, with his quips and cranks, 
his "Selections from the Devil's Papers," and "Dog-post Days," 
at once the laughing and the crying philosopher; have all in this 
shape passed before the public, in every aspect of the terrible, the 
tragical, the tranquil, or the humorous. There are but few years 
in which one delightful volume, at least, of elegant extracts from 
the " pocket-boohs^ might not be made up. 

The female talent of Germany has been considerable. Madame 
Kaubert is remarkable for her clever romances. Sophia Brentano 
and Johanna Schopenliaur are well known for their romances, and 
the latter for her works on art. Amelia Imlwff was distinguished 
for her knowledge of languages, her learning, and her critical taste 
in works of art, as well as for her poetic genius. Louisa von Kar- 
tell in has left several poems of merit; and her granddaughter, 1I<1- 
CJierzy, has written a tale of chivalry, called "The Three 
White Roses," with many other poems, and the opera of "Eury- 
anthe," for Weber to set to music. Caroline Fichkr is celebrated 
as a writer of historical romances. Frederica Bruhn has left 
"Travels in Italy." Johanna Weissenthurn is a popular dramatic 
writer. Faiu>?/ Tarnow is a very prolific writer : her novel called 



NINETEENTH CENTUui. 109 

"Thekla" is much esteemed; and Theresa Hale* has given charm- 
in a' volumes of these fascinating productions to her delighted coun- 
trywomen. The novels of the Countess Halm Halm are favorites 
of the present day in Germany. There are three ladies who are 
peculiarly distinguished by the Germans as having given great de- 
light by their very decided German intellectual organization. These 
are Ralicl von Ense, Bettina von Amim, and Charlotte Stieglitz. 
The first is chiefly known to us by her husband's work, entitled 
"Kahel." The second has published her correspondence with 
Goethe; also "Die Gunderode," and her " Diary. ;; The last-named 
published a book, simply bearing her name for its title. At one 
time, a multitude of novels, written in a style of very false senti- 
ment, inundated Germany; and which, for a while, naturally turned 
into ridicule moonlight, and bubbling streams, and valleys, and 
shady groves, and, in short, all that is usually selected and collected 
to hush-a-bye the mind. Yet there is in most people such a natural 
disposition to be pleased with easy reading, that it is quite in vain 
to war against this numerous and indefatigable class of writers. The 
fact is, that all human beings feel it so delightful to love and to be 
loved, that this hymn of life may be modulated to infinity, and the 
heart will yet turn to it without satiety. But, be it well remem- 
bered, for it is a thing impossible to dissimulate, that even the best 
writings of this kind, too much indulged in, do harm. They have 
laid open all that is secret and should be sacred in our sentiments; 
and we can feel nothing now without recollecting having read of the 
sensation; so that every veil of the heart seems torn away; and 
while simplicity of character is no longer believed in, we shrink 
from expressing a feeling, which comes in gushing sincerity from 
the heart, lest we may be called artificial copyists. Thus we grow 
up among our fellow-men, cold and measured and unbrotherly, and 
no longer the loving creatures the great and ever-loving Creator in- 
tended us to be! Besides, a mind accustomed to this perpetual 
novel-reading, is rarely acquainted with itself: it is flattered and 
soothed into a quiescent enjoyment of its faculties, without inquiring 
why they were bestowed; it reflects not — it sees through the dark 
medium of human passions only ; it soars not — it is satisfied with 
earthly possessions, and sees no realm beyond the present for its 
10 



110 GERMAN LITERATURE. 

happiness, little dreaming that "death can hide from human sight 
sweet secrets I" It can never acquire strength to cast aside the clog- 
ging depravity of its animal nature, and gaze, with grateful pleasure, 
on that moment when its mortal garb shall be removed for the wed- 
ding-garment of a more perfect being; and thus it grows old in the 
weakness of youth, cheating itself with a perpetual illusion, and 
forgetting that the present stage of our existence is but one step in 
the Eternity to which we have been destined from the commence- 
ment of Time ! 

The Literature of Germany has very singular and marked 
phases. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Minnesingers 
and Swabian poets rendered themselves immortal, and greatly 
advanced the civilization of their country when the rest of Europe 
was in darkness. In the thirteenth and fourteenth, the unique spec- 
tacle of schools of artisan poets produced a universal love of lite- 
rature among the middle and lower ranks of the people, while the 
nobles shunned it. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, reli- 
gious polemics occupied almost every pen. In the seventeenth, a love 
of poetry began to awaken, as if to soothe the popular mind after 
the long civil wars. This increased through the eighteenth cen- 
tury, when we find, at its close, one of the brightest constellations of 
intellectual talent that has ever been known in Europe. The opening 
of the nineteenth century saw a continuance of the same pre-emi- 
nence, and the Germans now hold one of the first places in the 
scale of merit as a cultivated and deep-thinking people. 

The following is a list of books that may be further consulted on 
the Literature of Germany : — 

Hamherger' 's Lex. of Ger. Auth. ; MeiiseVs Lex. of Ger. Auth.; 
Wetterlin's Man. Ger. Poets; Boutencd-'s Hist. Poetry and EL; 
Panzer's An. Ger. Lit.; Boomer's Ess. Swab. Poets; C. II 
Schmidt's Ger. Theat.; Koch's Hist. Ger. Lit.; Mad. de Stacl's 
Germany; Mcnzcl's History of German Literature. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. Ill 



THE LITERATURE OF FRANCE. 

At the commencement of the Christian era, the conquest of Graul 
had greatly increased the glory of Rome, and was a means of the 
rapid improvement of the subdued natives. The victors favored 
every advance in art and science; and very shortly academies were 
formed in all the principal towns. A crowd of clever men, in 
every style of writing, was the consequence; and the Latin authors 
of this period do as much honor to France as to their Roman 
parentage. Those who became distinguished at a distance from 
Rome, were drawn towards her by the hope of advantage, if not by 
her own anxious desire to be the pre-eminent mistress of all that was 
great in her empire. Then this mighty empire began to fail, by its 
own excess of pride, and those kingdoms it had called its provinces 
rose upon its ruins. 

About the middle of the fifth century, the Franks invaded Graul, 
and their long struggles with the Romans was concluded by the 
battle of Soissons; but the Latin tongue remained sole mistress of 
letters, although by degrees it lost its purity, and became daily more 
barbarous, from the necessity of expressing the half-civilized ideas 
of the Franks. 

The period which elapsed between the time of Clovis and that of 
Charlemagne can only be considered as a dark night, occasionally 
interrupted by flashes of lightning. The Archbishop St. Remy, of 
Rheims, distinguished himself by his religious and political elo- 
quence ; Gregory of Tours wrote the cotemporary history in six- 
teen books; and, notwithstanding his ignorance and credulity, he is 
valued for his faithfulness. 

We must remark that about this time rhymes were introduced in 
Latin verses, the first examples of which were in popular songs, 
composed in bad Latin, to celebrate the victories of Clotaire, one of 
the Merovingian kings. 

Charlemagne engaged learned men from England and Germany, 
to come and cultivate his people. Flaccus Alcuinus, a native of 



112 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

Yorkshire, was very learned, and was sent by King Offa on an em- 
bassy to Charlemagne, whom he pleased so much, that Alcuinus 
was persuaded to remain at the court of the French monarch, and 
was employed to dispute the heresy of Felix, Bishop of Urgel. The 
University of Paris, and several others, are indebted to Alcuinus, 
for their foundation. 

Eginhart left a work, entitled "The Life and Actions of Char- 
lemagne," and an interesting correspondence on the events of the 
age. Fredegairius, surnamed the Scholar, wrote Chronicles in five 
books, and the continuation of Gregory of Tours. Rohan Maur 
composed a glossary Latin-tudesque, which was a precious treasure, 
with an encyclopaedia of belles lettres, and of the manner of teach- 
ing them. After Charlemagne, France fell again into its former 
darkness, and remained in it during nearly all the time of the 
second race of her kings. Yet the establishment of the Normans 
in France, under Charles III., influenced the language and litera- 
ture. These Scandinavian conquerors brought that love of the mar- 
velous common to warlike people, and also a calm and measured 
judgment, which was wanting to the inhabitants of the South. 

Under the third race of kings France fell into feudality, and the 
literature of the country took its tone of chivalry as a natural con- 
sequence ; for, the moment there was a knight to protect the weak, 
there was also a poet to sing his praise. 

The soft climate and rich soil of the south of France left leisure 
moments to its inhabitants, and this leisure soon produced a sweet 
and graceful poetry. The poets of the South were styled Trouba- 
dours: they went from castle to castle celebrating the brave, and 
praising the beautiful j their poetry was chiefly lyric. In the North, 
the same kind of minstrels wore called Trouveres, and though infe- 
rior in harmony to their brethren of the South, were greatly superior 
in wit and invention. 

For a nearer view of the Troubadours and Trou ceres, who were 
very numerous, we must refer our readers to the Able Millot's and 
to Raynouard's literary history of these poets; and also to Legrand's 
" Fabliaux." This class of poets existed from the end of the eleventh 
century to the beginning of the fifteenth, the twelfth being their 
golden age. Their poems were entitled "Songs of Exploits;" 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 113 

" Romances of the Twelve Peers/' because the Peers of Charle- 
magne are their principal heroes; also "Songs of the Knights of 
the Round Table." Thihault, Count of Champagne and King of 
Navarre, was one of them, and, in conjunction with many more, 
used to judge the works of the others on certain fixed days. At 
length, Clement Isaure established the Floral Games in 1325, when 
a golden violet, or a silver marigold, was given as the prize for the 
best poem. The ladies were anxious to join in this universal song, 
and the gay meeting of minstrels from all parts of France gave 
Toulouse, once in the year, an air of activity which was not natural 
to that peaceful city. William of Lorris wrote the " Romance of 
the Rose." Brunetto Latini wrote his "Little Treasure" in French, 
although himself an Italian, and the preceptor of Dante. 

Prince Charles of Orleans, taken prisoner by the English at the 
battle of Agincourt, amused his hours of captivity by writing light 
and graceful poems ; and, under his pen, the language began to 
assume an agreeable and pleasing turn; while Alain Chartier, in 
his poem of "The Four Ladies," showed how much of its present 
simple clearness was then forming. 

Corbeil, called Villon (or the Thief), made verses remarkable for 
their spirit ; and Villon showed a softness and purity of mind little 
in unison with his manners. 

Joinville wrote, with a very pleasing simplicity, the "Life of St. 
Louis," his king and friend. Basselin was the Anacreon of this 
age. Clotilde de Surville is the reputed writer, in this age, of 
some very sweet poems, which have, however, lately been attributed 
to a M. de Surville, an editor of the present century. 

In the thirteenth century, the religious ceremonies took a dramatic 
character, and soon after the churches were literally little else than 
theatres. The Brothers of the Passion, an order of monks, invented 
religious plays, called Mysteries and Moralities, and these sad mix- 
tures of superstition and ignorance were performed in the churches. 
By degrees, they added morality and manners to help to strengthen 
these representations, and thus regular dramas sprung up. Common 
sense soon indicated that the church was not a fit place for such 
diversions ; for the naturally gay temperament of the French made 
them encourage every approach to the ridiculous and droll, so that 

10* 



114 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

the vis comica rose to a height unbecoming a place of worship. 
"L'Avocat patelin," or "The crafty Lawyer/' is looked upon as a 
masterpiece of this age. 

The Philosophy of these first ages is confined to a single branch, 
Theology, with its dependencies, morality and casuistry. The cele- 
brated Abelard is at the head of the mystic school ; wishing to blend 
Plato's ideas with the principles of Christianity, allowing the judg- 
ment of each individual to interpret the Scriptures, they built their 
theories simply on the love of Grod and our neighbor. The impetu- 
ous St. Bernard opposed their doctrine as leading to heresy by too 
great indulgence, and insisting on the strict orthodoxy of invariable 
observance of the sacred text. The most remarkable work of the 
times was written by a native of Burgundy, called Gerson, chancel- 
lor of the University of Paris. His book, entitled "The Imitation 
of Jesus Christ," is the nearest approach to the divine spirit of 
Christ which has yet emanated from the human mind, and may be 
considered a benefit bequeathed to suffering humanity. It has been 
generally attributed to Thomas d Keinpis; but the above has been 
completely substantiated as the fact. In regard to History, Yille- 
hardouin's account of the transitory "Conquest of Constantinople" 
has a roughness of antiquity which pleases much ; it belongs to the 
thirteenth century. Froissart is the charming detailer of the four- 
teenth century, and in his "Chronicles" gives an admirable picture 
of the times. Christine of Pisan has left us the "Annals of the 
Reign of Charles V. ft and in the fifteenth century Comines set an 
example of that gravity in writing history which its subject assur- 
edly deserves. 

The more general study of Greek and Latin, the discoveries of 
the fifteenth century, and the wars in Italy, give a new character to 
the French language at this period, and prepare the way for the 
brilliant literature which is to follow. 

In 1512, Louis XII. ordered that Latin should no longer be used 
in the law courts; but habit had rendered the use of it so natural, 
that even a second order was unattended to, and it was not till after 
repeated commands from Francis I. that the custom was abolished. 

The taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, had obliged 
the learned men of Greece to seek protection in the West of Europe. 



SIXTEENTH CENTUEY. 115 

One of the most distinguished among thern, Lascaris, founded the 
royal library of Fontainbleau, and that of the college of Paris. 
Francis I. was anxious for every kind of glory, and became an ar- 
dent protector of letters. By his taste, and by that of his talented 
sister, the way was opened to the first really literary era of France. 
Marguerite de Valois wrote a volume of pretty, but too free, poesies. 
Clement Marot, the valet of Francis L, showed acute judgment and 
exalted taste; his poems are of various kinds, as elegies, sonnets, 
psalms, &g. His father, Jean Marot, had been distinguished as a poet. 
Francis I was himself a poet, and his son Henry II. wrote grace- 
ful verses to Diana of Poitiers. Lemaire wrote some considerable 
poems: as "Triumph of the Virtuous Lover/' "The Green Lady," 
and o'thers. Crestin was the author of " Chronicles in Verse" and 
various "Royal Songs." Chevalet wrote the "Mystery of St. 
Christopher." Parmentier wrote the morality of "The Glorious 
Assumption of our Lady." Roger Bontems was celebrated for his 
facetious satires, and other poems. Oliver, Bishop of Angers, wrote 
Latin poems and others. Grognet wrote "Chronicles," and various 
poems. Du Guillet wrote verses in honor of his wife. Stephen 
Dolet was burnt as an atheist at Paris; his poem, entitled "Brief 
Discourse on the French Republic," was burnt some years after the 
poet. Abundance, a notary of Bazoches, wrote the mysteries" of 
"The Passion," "The Three Kings," and others. The Boucliet 
family were prolific poets of the same class. Simon Grebau and 
his brother Arnold were celebrated as poets. Magny wrote odes 
and other poems. Jean de la Taille wrote comedies, and his brother 
Jacques two tragedies. Michael Nostradamus, a celebrated astrolo- 
ger, left some specimens of his talent as a poet. Hereof, Bishop of 
Digne, wrote a poem entitled "The Perfect Friend," which he left 
unfinished. Borderie wrote a pendant to this, and called it " The 
Court Friend." Boetie was a friend of Montaigne, and wrote poems 
in French, in Latin, and Greek; besides works in prose. Charles 
IX. wrote verses to Ronsarcl. This latter was a poet of talent, who 
delighted in the plaintive and tender : he contributed greatly to the 
improvement of the French language. His works were published 
in four quarto volumes during his lifetime, and consist of poems of 
all kinds. The name of Habert is distinguished in the middle of 



116 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

the sixteenth century, as that of a family remarkable for intellectual 
talent. We find Francois Habert translated Ovid, and wrote poems; 
Pierre wrote " The Mirror of Virtue ;" Isaac left poems ; another 
member was Bishop of Vabres, and a poet ; and Suzanne, their sister, 
left religious manuscripts. The Abbe Billy wrote sonnets and other 
poems. Dufaur Pibrac wrote a poem on "The Pleasures of a 
Rustic Life/' and many others. Muret wrote odes and hymns. 
The two brothers Amboise each attempted tragedies. Pic Bartas 
wrote "Uranie" and "Judith/' with other poems. Baif translated 
from Sophocles, and wrote original poems. La Jessie wrote agree- 
able songs. Arena was celebrated as a macaronic poet. Polet 
wrote canticles and other poems. Octavian de Gelais was celebrated 
at the opening of the sixteenth century as a poet; and his son,' Mel- 
lin, at its close, was surnamed the French Ovid. Remi Belleau 
was another macaronic poet. Claude de Pontoux imitated Petrarch 
with success. 

In the theatre, Jodelle tried the first regular pieces, in imitation 
of the Greeks. The representation of "Cleopatra" was opposed, 
but the poets and men of letters got it played before Henry IL, and 
its success determined the directors of the theatre to substitute 
Tragedy and Comedy in the place of the Mysteries and Moralities 
hitherto approved. Pe la Peruse, St. Geloise, Grevin, and, above 
all, Gamier, followed; preparing the way for the highest species of 
composition in the drama. 

Among the prose writers of the sixteenth century, we find Seysscl, 
who wrote the "History of Louis XII." Bude, who founded the 
College of France, and wrote "Commentaries on Government." 
The two Chamjriers, father and son; the elder wrote a "Chronicle 
of the Princes of Savoy;" and the younger, "On the Singularities 
of the G-auls." The Bellay family were another example of re- 
markable talent; William wrote Memoirs in Latin, and translated 
them, for Francis I., into French; Jean wrote poems of various 
kinds; Martin wrote Memoirs, which were afterwards added to these 
of his brother; R6n6 was the fourth of these distinguished brothers, 
and was, as Bishop of Mans, noted for his eloquence. Eustadic 
Bellay was Bishop of Paris, and a cousin of the same family; 
Joachim, a chancellor of Paris, and Jean, the cardinal, were favor- 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 117 

itea of Francis I. Joachim Bella y wrote a work entitled "The 
Defence and Illustration of the French Tongue. " The Abbe Vata- 
l!e was the restorer of Hebraic studies, and wrote "Notes and 
Lessons on the Bible. " Herberay translated "Ainadis de Gaul" 
from the Portuguese. The family of Robert Estienne (or Stephens, 
as it is frequently translated) deserve peculiar notice, as having, by 
their industry and good taste as printers, immensely facilitated the 
progress of letters. Robert possessed an accurate knowledge of 
Hebrew, Greek, and Latin; his son Henry was equally eminent as 
a scholar; and for three or four generations the labors of this family 
enlightened Europe. Dumoulin was a very celebrated jurisconsult 
of the sixteenth century; his works form five folio volumes. Jean 
du Tillet wrote "An Account of the Wars of the Albigenses." 
Villcgagnon wrote a "History of the Defence of Malta against the 
Turks." The unfortunate Admiral Coligny left "Letters" and 
other writings. Tavanes de Saidx wrote "Memoirs." The al- 
chemist Jaques Gohorry wrote the "Lives of Charles VIII. and 
Louis XII.," and had pretensions to be a poet. Blaise de Montluc 
wrote "Memoirs:" this work was named by Plenry IV., of France, 
"The Soldier's Bible." The unhappy Vcdee was burnt at Paris; he 
wrote the "Beatitude of Christians." Languet wrote a "Relation 
of the Expedition of Augustus of Saxony against William Grum- 
bach." Belief orest wrote the " History of the Nine Charleses of 
France." The Morel family was another succession of distinguished 
printers. Argentre wrote "The History of Bretagne." Paradin 
wrote " The History of our Times," and other works. Castleneau 
wrote "Memoirs from 1559 to 1570." Francois GrucU was a 
laborious bibliographer, and prepared two works entitled " The Li- 
brary;" but only one has come down to us. Jean Bodin has left a 
work entitled "The Republic," which is celebrated. 

In Philosophy, theology continued its stormy debates. Rabelais, 
in his burlesque epic of " Gargantua," attacked the prejudices of 
the times, and through cynicisms and buffooneries, laid down the 
basis of an excellent system of education. His writings created a 
decided change of ideas on many important subjects, and form an 
epoch in the literature of his country; but they are disgraced by the 
coarsest indecencies : yet Rabelais has been classed among the great 



118 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

creative geniuses of France. Montaigne, disdainiDg the mask of 
allegory, made the voice of reason to be listened to. In his " Es- 
says," he clothes philosophy with the sparklings of wit and familiar 
conversation, without taking away any part of its exalted end, and 
has made himself a name which will be reverenced as long as the 
French language shall endure. The religious eloquence of this 
period is represented by Calvin and Be Beze; while IS Hospital, in 
his political discourses, left models of probity and good sense. 
Brantome, the court historian, has left " Chronicles of the Illustrious 
Men and Women of his Age," written with a simple grace, but with 
too little restraint. The virtuous Be Thou (Thuanus) opposed his 
gravity and his purity to the lightness and corruptness of the times; 
his " Universal History" is looked upon as a model of Latin elo- 
quence. 

Translation became fashionable at this time in France. Amyot 
so charmingly gave the beauties of Plutarch's Lives and versions of 
the Greek writings of the Lower Empire, that he has rarely been 
surpassed in his own country as a translator. 

The memorable satire of " Menippee," composed by a body of Ro- 
man Catholic wits, is said to have been of greater service to the Pro- 
testant Henry of Navarre, than all his armies. In short, this sixteenth 
century effaced all the anterior centuries ; and the cultivation of let- 
ters rose to considerable distinction. The civil wars ceased at the 
commencement of the reign of Louis XIII. ; G-aston, Duke of Orleans, 
opened learned conferences in his palace ; the city imitated the court, 
and private individuals had also their literary meetings. A little 
later it was, at the Hotel Rambouillet, that the first people of the 
kingdom used to meet for the pleasure of discussing the writings of 
the world; and this gave astonishing impetus to the progress of 
literature. In the mean time, the members of the Port Royal Aca- 
demy carried grammar and logic to a high point of perfection ; and 
Louis XIII. , by an edict, formed the French Academy, to exercise 
a providential care over the language and literature of the country. 
The effects were soon perceptible; but the writings of the seven- 
teenth century were characterized by an imitation of the ancients, 
and could not yet deserve the distinctive epithet of a national lit< >a- 
ture. All authors aimed rather at a brilliant regularity of expres- 



SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY. 119 

sion, than at the noble darings of thought; there was wit, rather 
than genius, form rather than sentiment; yet this is the age of 
which the natives are most proud, and which in itself is decidedly 
the type of their taste. 

We must notice, at the opening of this century, the death of the 
Bishop of Chalons-sur-Saone, Pontus de Tyard, the last of the cele- 
brated pleiade of poets; which constellation consisted of Gervin, 
Jodclle, Belleau, Gamier, La Perouse, and Ronsard. Nicholas 
Rapin wrote French and Latin poems, and assisted in the satire of 
" Menippee." Bertant was another assistant, and also wrote various 
minor poems. The u Satires" of Regnier are celebrated. Durant 
was another poet of the " Menippee." HonorS d' TJrfel is famed for 
his pastoral entitled " Astrea." Malslierbes attained great sweetness, 
and was one of the most celebrated poets of the middle period of 
French literature; he is frequently called the father of French 
poetry. B' Orleans, known as an impetuous leaguer, is the author of 
a number of canticles and other works. Maynard wrote epigrams, 
sonnets, and other minor poems. Malleville was author of " La 
Belle Matineuse," a sonnet that has been much admired, and other 
minor poems. Baro wrote indifferent dramatic pieces. Rotrou was 
more renowned in his tragic efforts. He wrote thirty-seven drama- 
tic pieces, of which " The Hypochondriac" is the best. Tristan, 
called the Hermit, wrote tragedies and minor poems of indifferent 
merit. Beryerac was another writer of tragedies of the indifferent 
class. Ryer wrote nineteen tragedies of little merit. The witty 
but scurrilous JScarron belongs to the poets of this age ; he wrote 
also several novels. Dufresnoy published his " Art of Painting," 
in agreeable verse, which has been translated by Dryden and Mason. 
Racan wrote eclogues and odes of some merit. Pes Barreaux 
wrote a sonnet on his conversion, which is remarkable. Chaplain 
was for a long time looked upon as the chief poet of his age; but 
the ridicule of Boileau overpowered his former fame, and he has 
sunk to mediocrity. Gilbert wrote tragedies that are now almost 
forgotten. Montfleury wrote comedies. Chapelle wrote various 
minor poems. Rene Rapin wrote a poem entitled " The Garden," 
and many smaller poems. Pradon was author of some tragedies, 
which in their day were admired more than some of Racine's. 



120 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

The " Phedra" of Pradon was applauded at the very moment when 
the " Phedra" of Racine was condemned. 

The French are remarkable for their Memoirs; among which 
those of Tiller oi, De Torcy, Turenne, Cardinal d' Ossat, and De 
Gourville deserve notice here. In poetry, Voiture and Bcnserade 
fell into affectation, from a too great straining after elegance, and 
divided the world of letters into two factions; one, called Uranists, 
partisans of Voiture, who had written a remarkable sonnet addressed 
to Urania; the others, called Jobists, partisans of Benserade, who 
had written another remarkable sonnet, in which he alludes to the 
misfortunes of Job : posterity has decided the contention, by forget- 
ting both, except for their having written French many degrees 
purer than their predecessors. Scudery attempted an epic in 
"Alaric." Lemoine wrote another named "St. Louis," with as 
little success. But in the " Moses" of St. Armand, and the 
"Pharsalia" of Breboeuf, there are flashes of genius. Boileau is 
considered the legislator of the French Parnassus, and is their first 
didactic poet; but his "Art Poetique" is far less perfect in versi- 
fication than his satires and epistles, which are fine, both in thought 
and style. No one more than Boileau has given stability to French 
letters. Jean Baptiste Rousseau penned many odes of great beauty 
and harmony, and his Psalms are models of grace and purity. 
JSegrais, in his "Pastorals," is a faithful but weak imitator of Virgil. 
The "Idyls" of Madame DeshouMefsaxe often graceful, but prosaic. 
Fontcnclle; in his "Eclogues," makes his shepherds speak with too 
much wit, and too little nature; his versification is neglected and 
without grace. La fare, Regnier, Desmarets, Pavilion, have left 
light pieces; while the odes and madrigals of Chaulicu are full of 
feeling and philosophy. Lafontaiae is the prince of fabulists, and 
has never been equaled. 

Pulpit eloquence became very distinguished at this period; Bour- 
daloue was the first noticed for this excellence, and was remarkable 
for method and depth. The genius of Bossuct was sublime, and 
procured for him the epithet of the "Eagle of Meaux" (he was 
Bishop of Meaux). Fled tier obtained by his neatness, regularity, 
elegance, and harmony, a decided reputation. Mascaron has fine 
conceptions and a bold imagination, but is inflated and without taste. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 121 

M/ssillon has extraordinary elocution, harmony, dignity, and grace, 
and has deserved the name of the Cicero of the Catholic church, 
while Bossuct is called her Demosthenes. Fenelon, more celebrated 
as a writer and philosopher than as an orator, has, nevertheless, 
done great service by his " Dialogues on the Eloquence of the Pul- 
pit/' His " Teleinachus" is in every hand. 

In reference to the dramatic compositions of this century, we will 
first speak of the tragic. Mairet is to be thanked for introducing 
nature, both in sentiment and expression; his "Sophonisba" was 
run after by all Paris for four years, in spite of many imperfections. 
The " Marianne" of Tristan had an equal success. Rotron helped 
to ameliorate the stage, and in " Venceslas" almost rivaled Pierre 
Corneille, of whom he was the most distinguished forerunner. P. 
Corneille commenced his career with "Medea/' which had a very 
moderate success. Soon after appeared the "Cid/' the first distin- 
guished monument of the French theatre and of the renown of its 
author. His other plays succeeded rapidly, and are many of them 
masterpieces of talent: as "China/' "The Horatii/' "Polyeucte/' 
&c. His brother Thomas wrote tragedies and comedies of merit. 
Racine was another star of this favored epoch; and by his "Iphi- 
genia/' "Phedra," "Esther," and "Athalia," has obtained a never- 
dying reputation; but the poet was not so much estimated during 
his lifetime. Racine is a poet every way worthy of our love. Most 
of his plays were written in his youth, which makes one wonder at 
the extreme grace, sweetness, and correctness of his language. He 
has also the merit of rarely disgusting us with unnecessary crimes 
in his tragedies, as is the case with Corneille and Voltaire; and 
though not distinguished for strength or power as a poet, his trage- 
dies have long held the first place in public estimation in France 
for style and harmony. His son Louis was also a good poet. 

Duryer and Thomas Corneille (brother of the tragic writer), 
Campistron, Duchet, and Lafosse followed ; none of whom are to 
be compared with their immediate predecessors. Thomas Corneille 
had much tenderness in his dramatic pieces, but they are little 
esteemed for the theatre. 

The operas of Quinault gained surprising attention. 

In comedy y Scarron tried to captivate by wit, but at the same 
11 



122 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

time repulsed by indelicacy ; and Corneille added another bud to 
bis laurel crown, by setting the example of writing a good comedy, 
" The Liar/' drawn from the failings of the human heart. Moliere 
soon followed, and worked so well as to have formed for himself a 
name which will be honored to the latest ages of posterity. His 
serious comedies of "Le Tartuffe" and " Le Misanthrope," are the 
delight and glory of the natives. " Le Medecin malgre lui," and 
" Le Bourgeois Gentilhoinme," are masterpieces of wit and gayety ; 
while in " Les Precieuses Ridicules," and " Les Femmes Savantes," 
he shows himself as acute in satire : yet, for fear it should be imag- 
ined he deprecated education being given to women, he wrote 
"L'Ecole des Femmes," to counteract the satirical vein of the two 
preceding comedies. Regnard was also happy in his coniic deli- 
neations ; and in " Le Joueur," " Le Legataire," and " Les Me- 
nechmes," approached near to Moliere. 

The pJiilosojjJiy of this century was conspicuous in its ambitious 
aim, and independent in its career. A Protestant family, named 
Basnage, did much service, however, in their energetic and simple 
writings, for several generations. James was the most prolific. 
His " History of the Reformed Churches" is much esteemed. 
Descartes established its liberty, and substituted individual examin- 
ation for the authority of Aristotle. Pascal, in his " Lettres Pro- 
vinciales," gives a model for eloquent discussion ; and in his 
" Pensees," joined the glory of the thinker to that of the writer. 
Mallebranche laid open those snares which are formed for us by our 
senses and imagination. Bufjier and Des Marais prepared the way 
for the eager reception of the translation of the works of our philo- 
sopher Locke. Fen6lon, in his doctrine of Quietism, founded on 
the love of G-od, was opposed by Bossuet. Bayle commenced the 
system of doubt, which prevailed so largely in the following cen- 
tury. " The Dialogues of the Dead" and " Direction for the Con- 
science of a King," also by FenSIon, are monuments of wisdom 
and foresight. The "Essays" of Nteol and the "Maxims of 
Larochcfoucauld are not without depth. The " Caracteres" of 
La Bruylre are pictures of manners wittily colored, and the 
u Dissertations" of St Evremond are the professions of faith of an 
Epicurean, but one of good company. Nor must the eminent French 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 123 

Protestant divine, Jurieu, be omitted. His "Commentary on the 
Revelations/' and his " History of Calvinism/' are standard works, 
although disfigured by an intolerant spirit. The history of this age 
is imperfect. Mezerai wrote the " History of France/' as far as 
Henry IV., and has good judgment, but great negligence of learning 
and style. Father Daniel is voluminous, but little sure. "The 
Revolutions of Rome" and of " Portugal," by Vertot, are written 
with elegance, but do not offer sufficient guarantee of authenticity. 
Moreri's well-known " Historical Dictionary" is the standard work 
of this period. " The Conspiracy against Venice," by the Abbe St. 
Real, is given with so much dramatic power, that it interests deeply, 
but awakens doubts of its truth. Bossuet, in his admirable " Dis- 
courses on Universal History," has worthily fulfilled the high and 
difficult functions of the historian. Henault's " Chronological 
Abstract of the History of France" met with great success. His 
dramas were also well received. D' Ilerbelot' s " Oriental Library" 
still supplies valuable information on many points of Oriental his- 
tory. The Abbe Henry is another esteemed historian. His best 
work is a " History of the Church." Le (Here's " History of Car- 
dinal Richelieu" is his best work ; he was the friend of Bishop 
Burnet and of Lord Shaftesbury. The Chevalier Ramsay wrote 
his "Travels of Cyrus," and translated "Huclibras" into French, 
very cleverly. " The Memoirs" of Sully are a charming source of 
delight to all who love to see historical personages in their undress. 
" The Memoirs of the Fronde," written by several men of talent, 
are curious, but partial. Those of Mademoiselle Montpensier are 
rich in anecdote ; and those of the Cardinal de Retz are amusing, 
though often startling as to morality. 

Andre Dacier and his wife were very eminent classical scholars 
of this century. Their translations of the "Iliad" and "Odyssey," 
of Anacreon, Sappho, Terence, Plautus, Horace, Plutarch, and 
Epictetus, are among the best. The criticisms of the Daciers are 
always greatly valued. The novels of this century were singularly 
lengthy and extravagant, and are now sunk into total oblivion. The 
names of Scudery and CalprenMe remain, but that is all. Madame 
de Lafayette brought romances to a reasonable size; her "Zaide" 
and "The Princess of Cleves," as well as "The Count of Com- 



124 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

minges," by Madame Tencin, with. "The Comic Romance" of Scar- 
ron, are still read with pleasure. Voiture and Balzac were distin- 
guished for their "Letters," though composed for the purpose; while 
Madame de Sevignd's inimitable grace, wit, playfulness, and wisdom, 
appear to have flowed from her pen and heart without the pretension 
of literary glory. 

We have yet several prose writers to mention. Charron wrote 
"A Treatise on the Three Truths." Voisin wrote a "History of 
France," and other works. Cayet wrote a "History of Navarre." 
Serves wrote "The Theatre of Agriculture." Antoine Arnavld 
was author of a work entitled "Frank and Truthful Discourses;" 
he was an earnest opposer of the Jesuits. Coffeteau was a learned 
theologian, and wrote " Roman History," and other works. Cotton 
was the author of remarkable sermons. Goidlart was author of 
"Memoirs of the League," and other works. D'Aubigny wrote 
"Universal History/' and several other works. The DuJce of Rohan 
left "Memoirs" and "Travels." Duchesne wrote a "History of 
the Popes," and several other historical works. The " Memoirs" of 
Cardinal Richelieu and his other works are of value in history. 
The Abbe St. Cyran wrote warmly against the Jesuits. Bassom- 
jrierre left "Memoirs" of great interest. Vaugelas wrote "Remarks 
on the French Language." The twin brothers Saint-Marthe wrote 
a " G-enealogical History of France:" their family was distinguished 
for its learned members for several generations. Gasscn divas pro- 
fessor of theology at Digne, and is celebrated as a mathematician, 
and as the friend of the illustrious Galileo; he left works on philo- 
sophy, physics, and astronomy. Bignon wrote a "Description of 
the Holy Land," "Roman Antiquities," and other works. Duplcix 
wrote "Memoirs of the Gauls," a "History of France," and a 
"History of Rome." Percfixe wrote a "History of Henry IV." 
The "Letters" of Patin are considered clever and caustic. La 
Motlie de Yayer wrote on morals, politics, history, and literature. 
Jean de Laboureur wrote "The Tombs of Illustrious Persons," and 
several other works. Menage was learned and clever; he wrote a 
work on "The Origin of the French Language," and another on 
"The Origin of the Italian Language." Pclisson wrote a "History 
of Louis XIV.," and a "History of the French Academy." Bussy 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 125 

JRabutin wrote "Memoirs," and other works. Auhery wrote a 
" History of the Cardinals de Richelieu, Joyeuse, Mazarin," and 
other works. Varillas wrote several historical works, as " History 
of France," "History of Heresies," "Anecdotes of Florence," and 
others. The Abb6 Martujnac is celebrated as a translator from the 
Greek and Latin, and left "Memoirs." The antiquary Montfaucon 
belongs to this century. 

The eighteenth century was remarkable as an era in the principles 
of philosophy; letters came only to have a secondary part to play. 
Its literature was simply a continuance of that of the preceding 
century, but the aim was very different. The writers of the eight- 
eenth century aim at the overthrow of all that impeded the liberty 
of thought and the liberty of action; religious power and royal 
power j the positive is to replace the ideal; the manners become 
corrupt; a spirit of innovation takes possession of the people — they 
laugh at everything ; the golden thread, by which man's hopes were 
attached to the infinite, breaks in his hand ! 

In. poetry, Voltaire shone at an early age; his success in the epic 
poem of the "Henriade," was decisive in France; but several of 
his other poems are not worth naming. It was in dramatic poetry 
that he was especially distinguished, of which talent we shall speak 
in its proper place. The charming poem of " Verkvert," by Gvesset, 
is universally read ; and though but a trifle, the hero of which is a 
parrot, it is a literary jewel. " The Seasons" of St. Lambert con- 
tain several pleasing descriptions. Delille was admired at one time 
for his poems, "The Imagination," "Pity," and "Gardens;" but 
more as the happy translator of Virgil. Flavian's "Fables" are 
moral and lively, with considerable grace. Gilbert, Malfilatre, and 
Andre Chenier, awoke hopes that were cut short by destiny. The 
first wrote a clever satire on the eighteenth century, and expired in 
a hospital of charity; misery also led the second to the tomb, 
after he had written on " The Genius of Virgil," and another poem 
called " Narcissus ;" and the axe of the Revolution caused the 
death of the third. Andre Chenier is the only man who has per- 
fectly given the ancient elegy in French. 

In tragedy, Crebillon took the element of feav for his dramatic 
power, and used it skillfully in "Atrea," " Electra," and "Rhada- 

11* 



126 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

miste." Voltaire, however, soon eclipsed him, and from his first 
effort, in " CEdipus," took the highest position in the world of let- 
ters; yet fourteen years passed over before Voltaire realized the 
promise given in this first play ; his following tragedies were weak 
and imperfect. At length " Zaire" appeared, and the critics were 
satisfied. The author continued for many years to pour forth a 
number of tragedies, some feeble, others possessing eminent beauties, 
so that his reputation in this branch, as in almost every other, is one 
of the first in France. Other writers succeeded moderately in 
tragedy. La Grange Chancel wrote " Amasis and Ino ;" Lamotte 
wrote "Inez de Castro ;" Piron wrote "Gustavus Vasa;" Latouche 
wrote " Iphigenia in Taurida ;" La Harpe wrote " Coriolanus '" 
Joseph Chenier wrote " Charles IX.," " Tiberius," and " Henry 
VIII. ;" Ducis arranged " Hamlet," " King Lear," and U Othello," 
for the French stage ; that is to say, he did not translate Shakspeare, 
he mutilated him. 

There was no decidedly good comedy in this century; Gresset 
and JDestouches wrote, nevertheless, with talent; " Le Mechant" of 
Gresset, and " Le Glorieux" of JDestouches, as also his u Philosophe 
Marie," have the honor of still being acted. The "Metromanie" 
of Piron, and the " Turcaret" of Le Sage, share the same distinc- 
tion. A crowd of second-rate writers might follow, but it must 
suffice to name a few; as Voltaire in " L'Ecossais;" Marivaux, 
Regnard, Du Fresny, Baron, Fabre cV Eglantine, Colli. At the 
close of the century, there were Collin d' ' Harlcville, Picard, Dide- 
rot, Legrand, Favard, and Sedainc, who created the ope>a comique; 
but he who closes the comedy of the eighteenth century, and who 
was the living expression of the agitation of the epoch, was Beau- 
marchais, author of " The Marriage of Figaro," of " The Barber 
of Seville," and of "The Guilty Mother." 

In moral philosophy, Duclos was conspicuous by his " Considera- 
tions on the Manners of the Age." In his "Emilc," Jean Jacques 
Rousseau seeks to correct the faults of education, but his opinions 
are not sufficiently digested to be solely depended on. More firm 
and more religious than his master, Bernard in de St, Pierre gives 
to God and nature the worship of a simple, good heart. In the 
" Harmonies of Nature/' his most amusing prose is highly poetical. 



EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY. 127 

" Paul and Virginia," with " The Indian Cottage/' are stories in- 
troduced as exemplifications of the author's system, and are writings 
which will last as long as a human heart is beating to delight in 
them. Fontenelle was cold and selfish in his sentiments. His 
" Dialogues of the Dead/' and " Plurality of Worlds/' are the 
best known of his works. Marmontel, with pretensions to the 
name of moralist, is anything but moral, though a graceful and 
amusing writer. The story of " Belisarius" is charming, but de- 
viates from historical truth. 

The Count de Buffon has raised a monument which can never be 
diminished as a literary effort, though science is constantly finding- 
fresh opportunities for the improvement of our knowledge of natural 
history. As a philosopher, Buffon has great defects, drawing hasty 
conclusions from imperfect premises. After having written " The 
Persian Letters" as a prelude, Montesquieu , by his " Spirit of the 
Laws," caused each nation to examine its own constitution. Speak- 
ing of Montesquieu, Lord Chesterfield says, " His virtues did honor 
to human nature, his writings justice. A friend to mankind, 
Montesquieu asserted their undoubted and inalienable rights with 
freedom, even in his own country, whose prejudices in matters of 
religion and government he had long lamented and endeavored to 
remove. He well knew, and justly admired, the happy constitution 
of England, where fixed and known laws equally restrain monarchy 
from tyranny, and liberty from licentiousness. His works will illus- 
trate his name and survive him, as long as right reason, moral obli- 
gation, and the true spirit of the laws shall be understood, respected, 
and maintained." Maupertuis, a brother philosopher, wrote ^ The 
Eulogy of Montesquieu," and various philosophical works. Rous- 
seau, in his " Social Contract," develops theories which have been 
both admired and combated with enthusiasm ; these are the only 
two distinguished political systematic writers of the eighteenth 
century. Goguet wrote his elaborate work " On the Origin of 
Laws." 

We shall class the encyclopedists together as a useful yet danger- 
ous body of writers, who appear to have agreed to disseminate skep- 
ticism over every realm of science. Among the chief are Voltaire, 
Diderot, D'Alembert, D J Holbach, Helvetius, Condorcet, and La 



128 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

Harpe. To this school belong also Cabanis, Destutt de Tracy, 
Volney, and Gar at. Dr. Gall — in conjunction with Spurzheim, 
the propounder of Phrenology — a German by birth, but who wrote 
much in French, and Laromiguiere, had more of spiritualism. 

We find the universal genius of Voltaire presiding in the field of 
history ; his " Siecle de Louis XIV." is his best work of this kind, 
although the " History of Charles XII." and " Peter III." are 
finely penned; yet, as they are not authentic in many points, their 
value is considerably diminished. Montesquieu has left an admira- 
ble work on " The Grandeur and Fall of the Romans;" and " The 
Travels of Anacharsis," by Bartlielmy, is a charming mirror of the 
manners and customs of the ancients. But the histories written in 
this age are generally not to be valued; many are only abridg- 
ments, and others memoirs, spoiled by partiality. The chief are, 
" History of Ancient and Modern India," by Guy on, and the same 
subject by Raynal; u The Lower Empire," by Crevier ; " General 
History," by Millot; " Ancient and Modern History," by Condil- 
lac; u Universal History," " History of France," " Spirit of the 
League," &c, by Anquetil; u Lessons of History," by Volney; 
u History, Ancient and Modern," by Rollin, the indefatigable 
friend to youth. Rajnn's " History of England" is still a library 
work, and being only down to the Revolution, has been continued 
by Tindal to the accession of George III. Calmet, a Benedictine 
monk, wrote "Universal History," "A Critical, Historical, and 
Chronological Dictionary of the Bible." Saurin is well known in 
England for his moral, historical, and critical discourses. The 
learned traveler, Savary, claims notice at the close of this century : 
he translated the Koran; and his "Letters on Egypt and Greece" 
are still valued. The witty Le Sage stands alone as a novelist. 

These are the chief writers of the eighteenth century; but we 
may again glance through that remarkable period, to mention more 
copiously the authors of the amazing mass of literature which France 
collected during its course. Boursaidt wrote sixteen pieces for the 
theatre, several romances, letters, and other works. Segrais wrote 
eclogues and other poems. Commire wrote Latin poems of great 
beauty. Perrault wrote dramas and poems. Lafosse wrote trage- 
dies and poems. Desmarais was a poet and grammarian. Gcnest 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 129 

wrote tragedies and minor poems. Jouvencij was a poet, historian, 
orator, and critic. Palaprat and Brucys united their talents in 
several comedies. Gampisfron was an imitator of Racine the elder. 
Larue wrote Latin poems and others. Dancourt was a prolific 
writer of comedies. Die Jarry wrote clever minor poems. La 
Chaussee invented the "larmoyant," or tearful drama, and wrote 
several. Boissy was also a respectable writer of comedies. Mon- 
crif wrote " The Art of Pleasing," and other agreeable poems. 
The family of Helvetius was distinguished for talent : Adrian Hel- 
vetius wrote a poem, entitled " L'Esprit," which is celebrated. De 
Belloy was a successful writer of comedies in his day. Bernard, 
surnamed Gentil, wrote pleasing poems. Voisegenon wrote ro- 
mances and comedies. Colardeau wrote tragedies and comedies of 
mediocrity. Saint Foix wrote a work, called " Turkish Letters," 
and others. Laures was fortunate at the Academy, but not much 
esteemed as a poet. Dorat was a prolific writer of tragedies and 
romances. Saurin wrote several comedies. Antoine Thomas ob- 
tained the prize for prose and verse six times. Favart wrote sixty 
pieces for the theatre^ some of which, as minor comedies, are still 
favorites. Lemierre gained several academical prizes for his trage- 
dies, but was not successful at the theatre. De la Place was a poet 
of great fecundity. Collot d'Herbois was a successful author of 
dramas. 

The prose writers of this century, which were the most remark- 
able, have been already named; but there are several others whose 
works have remained in possession of a general approbation, and 
which must, therefore, be mentioned here. Ancillon wrote a work, 
entitled "The Edict of Nantes/' and others of value. Balluze 
wrote the " History of the Popes of Avignon." Etties Dupin 
wrote the " Ecclesiastical History of the Eighteenth Century," and 
other good historical works. Letellier wrote a " History of Janse- 
nius." Massieu wrote a " History of French Poetry." Basnage 
de Beauval wrote fifteen volumes of the a History of the Jews." 
Gamusat wrote " The French Library." Legendre wrote a " His- 
tory of France." Bellegrade wrote a u History of Spain," besides 
a " Universal History," and other works. Sevin wrote " Disserta- 
tions" on the six hundred manuscripts which he had brought from 



130 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

Constantinople. Dubos wrote " Reflections on Poetry and Paint- 
ing." Duperron wrote on "The Spanish Theatre/' and other 
works. Ladvocat published a " Biographical Dictionary." Goujet 
wrote " The Library of Ecclesiastical Authors." Olivet wrote a 
" History of the French Academy." Macquer continued the 
" Historical Chronology" of the president Henault. Duchs wrote 
a " History of Louis XL" and " Memoirs of the Reign of Louis 
XIV." Villaret continued Be Velly's " History of France." Fe- 
vret wrote the " Historical Library." Beaumelle published the 
" Memoirs and Letters of Madame de Maintenon." Condamine 
wrote Travels and Memoirs. Baporte's work on the " Literature 
of France," and other historical works, are esteemed. Dreux de 
Radier wrote "The History of the Queens Regent." D 'Anville is 
celebrated for his geographical works. Duliamel was a prolific 
writer of " Memoirs." Mably wrote " On the Romans and the 
French," and several other clever historical works. Bupaty wrote 
" Letters on Italy, in 1785." Mirabeau was one of the greatest 
orators of France, and one of the most remarkable men of the great 
Revolution; his works are chiefly political, and are distinguished for 
their eloquence. Ridhieres wrote a " History of the Anarchy of 
Poland," and other works of value. Badly wrote the " History of 
the Astronomy of the Ancients," and other good works. Champ- 
fort wrote a " Dramatic Dictionary," and other works. Camdle 
Besmoulins was chiefly a political writer in favor of the great Revo- 
lution. Linguet wrote a " History of the Age of Alexander the 
Great;" also, "An Impartial History of the Jesuits," and other 
good works. Be Bonald's work, entitled " Primitive Legislation," 
is one of the most beautiful productions of modern ages. The ex- 
cellent Makherbes wrote a "Treatise on Rural Economy," " Thoughts 
and Maxims," and two memoirs " On the Civil State of the Pro- 
testants." Thouret's " Chronological Tables of Ancient and Mo- 
dern History" are valued. Beaufort's work " On the first Five 
Centuries of the Ptoman History," and his other works, are much 
esteemed. Richer wrote the " Lives of celebrated Mariners." Gvys 
wrote a " Literary Voyage through Greece." There are several 
authors of eminence whose works belong to this century, but whose 
deaths carry us into the nineteenth. Of these we will mention the 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 131 

" Celtic Dictionary" of Latour d'Auvergne and " Origin of the 
G-auls;" the "Letters to Emily" of Demoustier ; the poems of St. 
Lambert; Ncclcer's "French Revolution/' and other works; the 
" Proverbs" of Carmontelle; the novels of Desforges; Galliard's 
"Rivalry of France and England," and other historical works; the 
" Literary Correspondence" of Baron Grimm; the poems of Le- 
brun ; JSabatiei-'s "Classical Dictionary;" Valmont's "Universal 
Dictionary of Natural History;" the works of Cabanis on " Ger- 
man Literature," and other subjects. 

We must divide the nineteenth century into three parts : — ■ 

1. The Empire, from 1804 to 1814. 

2. The Restoration, to 1830. 

3. The Revolution of July. 

1. The Empire. — When Napoleon found himself firmly seated on 
the throne of France, he took pleasure in encouraging the arts, but 
literature was left in the back-ground. Indeed, men had suffered 
so much, and seen so many changes, that few were bold enough to 
express their thoughts. It was necessary, however, to the glory of 
Napoleon to have learned men about him, hence he favored various 
institutions; but his great object was to form military chiefs. He 
interfered in these institutions personally, and distributed the badge 
of distinction himself; but his reign is characterized by the fact, 
that new books rose considerably in price, not from any additional 
labor or increase in the price of labor, but because the demand was 
so small as to allow but a small number of copies to be taken off; 
while, at the same time, old editions of the best authors were cur- 
rently sold in Paris for one-fourth part of their value. But when 
literature dared to hold up its head once more, it was evident a 
new order of thoughts had sprung up with the new order of 
things. Instead of the cold, stiff imitations of the ancient wri- 
ters, Madame de Stael and Chateaubriand dared to write from 
the abundance of their own hearts, and borrow graces from nature 
only; then added to their glorious daring the proof that the trea- 
sures of other European countries were as much to be valued as 
those of ancient Greece and Rome. This was immediately desig- 
nated the Romantic School by the lovers of the classics; and two 
parties were formed in the world of letters, which, during the 



132 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

Restoration, very warmly contested their individual excellences. Ma- 
dame de StaeTs work on " Germany/' her " Considerations on the 
French Revolution/' her novels of " Comma" and " Delphine," 
are distinguished by powerful talent ; and have never been equaled 
by any female writer. 

Chateaubriand's " Martyrs" and " Genius of Christianity" are 
charming in language throughout, but deficient in solidity and truth. 
His great utility, at the moment of his first literary efforts, was that 
of representing Christianity in her most amiable form and benefi- 
cial consequences; but however necessary such a writer was in 
France, to break the ice of infidelity, he has attached far too much 
to the sensible and external part of religion ; indeed, he seems never 
to have penetrated the deep and real essence of Christianity. 

In this period we must place Saint Croix, who wrote " Histori- 
cal Researches on the Mysteries of Paganism," and several other 
works; Luce de Lancival, who was a dramatic author of consider- 
able talent; Esmenard, distinguished as a poet; Levesque, who 
wrote the " History of Russia," and several other good works; 
Toidongeon, who wrote " The Constitutional Principles of the Na- 
tional Assembly," and other works; Legouve, a dramatic author and 
poet of distinction ; Parny, who earned the title of the " French 
Tibullus;" Geoffrey, who wrote on "Dramatic Literature;" Palis- 
sot, who wrote " Memoirs" and poems; Boufflcrs, author of minor 
poems; Ginguene, author of a " Literary History of Italy," which 
was continued by Salfi; Mentelle, who wrote " Universal Geogra- 
phy;" Gouffier, who wrote a "Picturesque Journey through 
Greece;" Suard, who translated Robertson's "Charles V." and 
wrote various other works; Morellet, who wrote "Memoirs," and 
translated from the Italian; the Able Sicard, who wrote a great 
number of works relative to the Deaf and Dumb Institution; 
Avrigny, who wrote a great many successful comic operas. The 
superficial and artificial Madame de Gad is must be mentioned, were 
it only for the amazing number of her works. The best of these 
have, however, become popular, from the very great scarcity of in- 
nocent reading in French at the commencement of this century ; 
but it is a pleasure to perceive that the tastes and morals of the 
young student arc now better attended to, although very imperfectly 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 133 

still. " The Evenings of the Castle/' " Annals of Virtue/' and 
" Theatre of Education/' of Madame de Genlis, are all popular in 
this country. Her "Madame de la Valiere" and "Madame de 
Maintenon" are graceful specimens of the author's talents, and her 
" Mdlle. de Clermont" is a model of the French accomplishment of 
relating. 

2. The Restoration. — During the latter years of the Empire, 
literary men appeared a luxury in society , they now become a 
power, and they were the only men who saw the fall of Napoleon 
without surprise, for they had long foreseen it. The humiliated 
position of France, invaded and garrisoned by her enemies, awoke 
the patriotic feelings of two poets : Beranger, the delight of the 
people, wrote most spirited and heart-stirring songs, or rather odes, 
of admirable talent ; Casimir de la Vigne took a more serious style, 
and in his " Messeniennes" has merit, both as to mental talent and 
correct elegance, as well as patriotism. Suddenly, the ancient 
school was silenced by the awakening of a charming poet in the 
opposing class. De Lamartine published his " Meditations/' and 
all France felt the thrill of poetic sweetness and deep feeling, which 
the harmonious poet called forth. Up to the present day, this 
highly gifted man continues to win all hearts and charm all ears, 
either by his grace as a poet, or his fervid eloquence as a speaker 
and writer. The poems of " Joslyn," and " The Fall of an Angel," 
have added other laurels to those he had won before. The plain- 
tive and graceful poems of Millevoye were of the same period as Be 
Lamartine s early poesies, and were rapturously received by the 
young. Bausset wrote " The Life of Fenelon." Bangles wrote on 
" The Ancient and Modern Monuments of Hindostan," and other 
works relative to India. Bacretelle wrote " Studies on the Involu- 
tion," and other works of repute. The unfortunate Paul Louis 
Courtier belongs to this period. He is the Junius of French poli- 
tics. His numerous pamphlets are marked with intense energy and 
extreme causticity. Ferrand wrote " The Spirit of History," and 
other works. General Foy wrote a " History of the Peninsular 
"War." Bacepede's principal work was published after his death, 
and entitled " General History." Boissy d'Anglas wrote a " No- 
tice on Florian," and several political works. JSfeufehateau wrote 
12 



134 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

" Fables" and " Comedies." Picard wrote " The Gil Bias of the 
French Revolution." Count Baru wrote a " History of the Cam- 
paign of Russia." The Marquis Bally- Tollendal left a variety of 
works on various subjects, all written with a peculiar energy and 
eloquence : as " Memoirs in favor of his Father," " Letters to Mr. 
Burke." Benjamin Constant is remembered as a distinguished 
member of the Chamber of Deputies. His chief works are on 
" The Spirit of Conquest," " The Force of the Government/' " On 
Religion." 

3. The Revolution of 1830. — Since this period, France has made 
strides of amazing extent in the world of letters. Cousin's u Intro- 
duction to the History of Philosophy" is a standard work. Count 
Matthew Damas's " Military History'' is powerfully interesting. 
But, in fact, the historians of this epoch are stars of the greatest 
magnitude. In this kind of writing there are two schools : the 
philosophic and picturesque. 3Ions. Guizot is at the head of the 
former ; he has written a " History of the Civilization of Europe," 
" Essays on the History of France," " The English Revolution." 
Guizot resembles the celebrated German Niebuhr in his method of 
treating history. " In the individual he finds the species, in the 
people the whole of humanity." To this school belong Thiers and 
Mignet, both of whom have written remarkable works on "The 
French Revolution." Valery's "Historical Travels," &c, must not 
be forgotten. The picturesque historians are men who color their 
writings with a vivid tone of enthusiasm, and much dramatic effect. 
Augustin Thierry, in his works, entitled " Letters on the History 
of France," and " The Concjuest of England by the Romans f 
Barante, in his u Literary History of the Eighteenth Century," and 
" The Dukes of Burgundy;" JSismondi's " History of the French 
and Italian Republics;" with Villemain's " Cromwell," and other 
works; Be Vigny's historical novels of " Cinq Mars" and " Stello;" 
with the " Historical Sketches" of Alexandre Dumas, belong to 
this class. There has lately been added another school, formed 
from the fusion of the two others, — the symbolical. Of this class, 
Michclet and Quinct are at the head. These gentlemen are united 
in the warmest friendship ; they are both highly cultivated ; pro- 
found, yet practical; upright in mind, honest in purpose, zealous in 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 135 

action, candid in words, and generous in argument. The convic- 
tion that Jesuitism has compromised the Roman Catholic Church, 
and the fear that it may compromise Christianity, have each spurred 
them to great mental exertion, both unitedly and individually. 
Michelefs chief works are " The Life of Luther;'' " The Life of 
Vico;" "History of France;" " Roman History ;" " Compendium 
of Modern History;" and, within a short time, "Priests, Women, 
and Families," and "The People;" besides several smaller, though 
equally valuable works, many of which are well known in England 
through Mr. Cocks' s spirited translations. Quinet's principal writ- 
ings are " The Genius of Religions ;" " Germany and Italy ;" 
" Discourses on the Literatures of the South of Europe ;" " My 
Holidays in Spain;" " Ultramontanism, or The Roman Church 
and Modern Society," a work which electrified France, and called 
forth all the bitterness of Rome, and which has been followed by 
u Christianity and the French Revolution," the production of an 
eagle intellect, soaring far above the littleness of life, to examine 
the workings of the Almighty, in the progress of society. Dupuis's 
work, u On the Origin of all Religious Rites," had excited great 
interest, and was the cause of much of the speculative opinion which 
followed. In speculative philosophy, Battanche and Fourrier have 
attracted considerable attention : Ballanche is all mysticism ; Four- 
rier is rational, and bent on economizing the happiness of his fel- 
low-men by appropriating their talents to useful occupations. 

In tragedy, Casimir de la Yigne has written with taste, elegance, 
and purity, both in style and moral ; his tragedies and comedies 
have given brilliancy to the French stage; but he wants energy, 
historical truth, and exalted thought. "The Sicilian Vespers," 
" The Paria," " Louis XL," and " The Children of Edward," have 
all pleased the majority of readers. Lemercier, in "Agamemnon" 
and " Pinto," will always deserve a conspicuous place among the 
dramatists of his country. But the finest talent of the age has 
been shown by Victor Hugo — too frequently misapplied, yet often 
producing things of exquisite beauty. His early poems, entitled 
" Autumn Leaves," " Lights and Shadows," " Interior Voices," 
breathe of beauty and purity; " Twilight Songs" have a political 
sense; his " Odes and Ballads" have many brilliant touches. His 



136 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

novels are " Hans of Iceland/' " Bug-Jargal/' " Our Lady of 
Paris/' which excited much interest in the literary world through- 
out Europe; and " The Last Days of a Condemned One." His 
theatrical pieces are " Hernani/' " Marion de Lorme/' u The 
King amuses himself/' u Lucretia Borgia/' " Mary 'Tudor/' " An- 
gelo, Tyrant of Padua/' " Buy Bias/' and " The Burgraves." In 
many of these there are scenes which read like embodied night- 
mares; where, as Groethe says, "all that is vile in man's nature is 
exaggerated, and his good qualities are forgotten, amid a hideous 
phantasmagoria of vices, painted with the wildest power of a poet's 
fancy. Hugo's more healthy tone of mind is seen in his " Litera- 
ture and Philosophy," as also in a charming work about u The 
Rhine/' in which, however, he proves his want of benevolent sen- 
timents, and of that universal love which distinguishes the noble 
soul, by his constant snarling at England. Patriotism and justice 
are two things, it should seem, not always easy to be reconciled. 
Alexandre Dumas is looked upon as possessing the most decidedly 
dramatic head of the day. " Christine" is the best of his tragedies ; 
but it is easy to see that his literary principles are not fixed. He 
gleans also from other geniuses, not sufficiently depending on his 
own. He has coloring, animation, taste, and frequently fine 
thoughts, but his talent wants ripening, and his writings want care. 
Soumet has written a good tragedy in " Clytemnestra/' as also 
Ancelot, in " Louis XL" and " The Two Empresses." Comedy 
has no decided votary in this age in France, although little else but 
comic pieces are performed; but these are generally short, witty 
conversations, if one may say so; gay, lively trifles, with pleasing 
dialogue and interesting action. It is no longer society which is 
painted, it is private life and individuals; every one laughs, but 
nobody corrects himself; while true comedy should be the school 
of manners. Picard attacked the absurdities of the moment; Du- 
val rose higher and was more dramatic. Andricux was excellent 
in style and moral; during the Empire, his comedy of " Les Etour- 
dies" brought him decided fame. " La Comedienne," " Le Man- 
teau," and many others kept it at the same height. Barbier's 
poems were enthusiastically received, though he dared to curse Na- 
poleon. Etienne had lyric grace and nature; while De la Vigne, 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 137 

in "The School for Old Men/' and " The Comedians/' added to his 
former renown. Scribe is, however, the most successful comic 
writer in France, and most prolific. " Bertrand et Raton," with 
u La Camaraderie," will outlive his vaudevilles, although his fertile 
imagination and happy talent of application of any subject to the 
stage, have proved an abundant source of amusement to the French 
and of wealth to their author; for Scribe is by far the richest lite- 
rary man in France of the day. Alfred cle 3Iusset is a graceful 
poet, with more energy than his predecessor Millevoye; though 
there are pieces of the latter which profoundly touch the heart. 

The novelists are a peculiarly industrious race in all countries, 
and especially in France. She has long deluged the whole of Eu- 
rope with this species of work, in which her authors are little care- 
ful what principles they advocate. Balzac, Paul de Kock, St. 
Beauve, Jules Janin, Georges Sand (or Madame Dudevant), Eugene 
Sue, Frederick Soidie, are amongst the most remarkable; all of 
them possessing eminent talent, and many of them frequently for- 
getting for what purpose it was bestowed. Louts Blanc has given 
a "History of Ten Years/' from 1830, which is highly interesting, 
and may be said to have had considerable influence in producing 
the revolution of February, 1848. Saint Marc Girardin has pro- 
duced a " Course of Literature" much approved of. Lucas has 
written a " History of the French Theatre." The Abbe La Mennais 
in religious speculation, and AimS Martin in his " Education of 
Mothers of Families," have both attracted universal attention. The 
writers on science are numerous: Cuvier, Arago, Lupin, Mignet } 
Raoid-Rochette, Royer-Collard, Segur, are on everybody's lips. 

The female writers of France are highly distinguished; and 
though out of chronological order, we must enumerate a few of 
them. Clotilde de Surville wrote poems. Christine de Pisan 
was a writer of history. Marguerite de Valois wrote poems and 
novels. Jeanne d 1 ATbret wrote poems. Louise Labbe, or the Belle 
Cordoniere; Madeline de la Roche and her daughter Catherine; 
Louise de Savoie, mother of Francis I. ; Marguerite of France; 
Madame de Lassuze, all wrote poems of merit. Mme. Deshou- 
liere was also a poetess. Mme. de Motteville wrote memoirs, as also 
Mdlle. 3Iontpensier. Mme. de la Fayette wrote romances and me- 

12* 



138 FRENCH LITERATURE. 

moirs, and Mine, de SevignS is distinguished for the grace of her 
style in letters; Mme.de Maintenon for her solid good sense. Mme. 
de JScudery wrote romances, and also Mme. cV 'Aulnoy. Sophie 
Chiron wrote poems. Mme. Guyon was a writer of canticles and 
highly spiritualized poems. Mme. de Graffigny wrote the " Peru- 
vian Letters." Mme. du Chatelet wrote on philosophy. Mme. 
Tencin and Mme. Riccobeni wrote romances. Mme. de Goujet 
wrote dramas. Mme. Roland wrote poetical romances and dramas. 
Mme. Dacier was celebrated as a critic and translator. Mme. 
Staal de Launay has left memoirs. Marguerite de Lussan wrote 
annals. Mme. de Caylus wrote memoirs. Mme. Bourdic Viot 
wrote poems and romances. Mme. Duboccage wrote dramas and 
poems. Mme. Cottin wrote novels. Mme. de Remusat wrote me- 
moirs. Mme. Dufrenoy wrote poems. Mme. Guizot wrote poems; 
also " The Scholar/' and other works. Mme. de Stael cVHolstein 
wrote novels and literary history. Mme. de Genlis wrote novels 
and works on education. 

The early literature of France was peculiarly brilliant in poetry, 
and served as a model for all the rest of Europe. Then followed a 
period singularly barren in this talent. The twelfth, thirteenth, 
and fourteenth centuries passed without any revival of this ancient 
distinction. In the fifteenth, there was a slight awakening of poetic 
taste in the higher ranks of society, but which disappeared again 
till near the middle of the sixteenth century. Ronsard in poetry 
and Montaigne in prose illustrated the conclusion of this period. 
The seventeenth century produced talent of all kinds; and, at its 
conclusion, France had attained the highest degree of excellence in 
classical poetry, by the works of Racine, and the most perfect grace 
of prose writing, by the pen of Mdme. de Savigne". The eighteenth 
century is more remarkable for prose eloquence in the writings of 
Bossuet, Massillon, Montesquieu, and the Encyclopedists, than for 
poetic grace in the writings of Crcbillon, Corncille, and Voltaire; 
but it is the golden age of French literature, and abounds with 
talent of every species. The opening of the nineteenth century 
saw France too much disturbed to find time for literary occupation; 
war was her sole delight. In her present age, history and imagina- 
tion have predominated in her literary efforts; but the painting of 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



139 



her novelists has been carried to the highest degree of immorality, 
and calls forth the reprobation of all who desire the improvement of 
the human mind. 

The following is a list of works which may be further consulted 
on the French literature : u The Literary History of France/' by 
the Benedictines and Members of the Institute; " State of the 
Sciences/' &c.,by Leboeuf; " Historical Library" of Fevret; "French 
Library" of Goujet; " History of French Poetry/' by llassieu; 
"History of French Theatre/' Fontenelle; "Essay on French 
Literature/' Neuf chateau; " Literary History" of Lambert; "Age 
of Louis XIV./' Voltaire; "Memoirs/' by Chaplain; "Litera- 
ture," by La Harpe; " Works of Boileau/' by Daunou; " Litera- 
ture of France," by Barante. 



TABLE OF COTEMPORARY AUTHORS. 



Ed. Aletz. 

Ed. d'Anglemont. 

Belmontet. 

Beranger. 

Saint-Beuve. 

Bignan. 

Bonnechose. 

Boucharlet. 

Boulay-Patay. 

Adolphe Dumas. 

Antoine Delatour. 

Denne-Baron. 

Guiraud. 



Victor Hugo. 

Ernest Legouve. 

Lamartine. 

Lebrun. 

Jules Lefevre. 

Mery. 

Alfred de Musset. 

Mollevant. 

Peyronnet. 

Paillet. 

Pougerville. 

J. de Resseguier. 

Viennet. 



NOVELISTS. 



D'Arlincourt. 

Arnoud and Fournier. 

Balzac. 

Berthond. 

Bonnelier. 

Ed. Corbiere. 



De Calvimont. 
F. Davin. 
Ernest Dupres. 
Jules David. 
Victor Hugo. 
Alphonse Karr. 



140 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 



Paul de Kock. 
Jules Janin. 
Henri de Latouche. 
Paul Lacroix. 
Michel Masson. 
Theodore Muret. 
Paul de Musset. 
Roger de Beauvoir. 
Alphonse Royer. 



Saintine. 
Saint-Felix. 
Saint-Beuve. 
"George Sand." 
Salvandy. 
Fred. Soulie. 
Emile Souvestre. 
Eugene Sue. 
Touchard-Lafosse. 



DRAMATISTS. 



Arnoud and Fournier. 

Anicet-Bourgeois. 

Alboise. 

Albert. 

Belmontet. 

Alex. Dumas. 

Adolphe Dumas. 

Dinocourt. 

Dinaux. 

D'Outrepont. 

Empis. 

Paul Faucher. 



Victor Hugo. 
Leon Halevy. 
Ernest Legouve. 
Locroy. 
Lesquillon. 

F. Malleville. 

G. de Pixercourt. 
Paccard. 
Regnault-Warin. 
De Rougement. 
Frederic Soulie. 



COMEDIES AND VAUDEVILLES. 



Etienne Arago. 

Emmanuel Arago. 

Ancelot (Madame). 

De Bawr (Madame). 

Bayard. 

Brazier. 

Cogniard. 

De Comberouse. 

C. Boujour. 

Carmouche. 

Dumersan. 

Dupat}>\ 

Alexandre Daval. 



Georges Duval. 

Etienne. 

Fulgence. 

Jaine. 

Lherie. 

De Leuven. 

Halevy. 

Melleville. 

Scribe. 

Theaulon. 

Vanderbruch. 

Xavier. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 



141 



TRAGEDIES. 



Ancelot. 

Baur de Lormian. 

Delrieu. 

Guiraud. 



De Jouy. 
Lemercier. 
Sourmet. 
Viennet. 



HISTORY AND SCIENCES. 



Adelon. 

Alibert. 

Ampere. 

Arago. 

Azais. 

Artaud. 

Bodin. 

Bory de St. Vincent. 

Ballanche. 

Bignon. 

Blanqui. 

Burnouf. 

Boiste. 

Capefigue. 

Champollion. 

Chevalier. 

Cousin. 

Fred. Cuvier. 

Charles Dupuis. 

Dumas. 

Damiron. 

De Gerando. 

Delafosse. 

Droz. 

Dumont d'Urville. 

Gay-Lussac. 

Guizot. 

Geoffroy de St. Hilaire. 

Gail. 

Leonard de Gallois. 

De Genoude. 



I/Abbe de Guillon. 

Julia Fontanelle. 

Jouffroy. 

Jomard. 

Julien. 

Las-Cases. 

Lerminier. 

Lefebvre de Fourcy. 

Lacre telle. 

Leclerc. 

Letroue. 

Letroue. 

Milne-Edvards. 

Michaud. 

Michelet. 

Mignet. 

Nisard. 

Nowyns. 

Naudet. 

Orfila. 

Passy. 

Pelouse. 

Poujoulat. 

Pouillet. 

Proudhon. 

Quatremere. 

Quinet. 

Raoul-Rochette. 

Roujoux. 

Royer Collard. 

Saint-Prix, 



142 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 



Sylvestre de Sacy. 
Segur. 
Thenard. 
Thiers. 



Tissot. 

De Tocqueville. 

Virey. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



Aime Martin. 

Ajasson de Grandsagne. 

Appert. 

Antony Beraud. 

Berthoud. 

Bouilly. 

Briffant. 

Philarete Chasle. 

Chateaubriand. 

Creuse de Lessert. 

Capot de Feuillade. 

Cauchois-Lemaire. 

Caussin de Percival. 

Chabrot de Volvie. 

Be Chateaugiron. 

Collin de Plancy. 

De Francompret. 

Emile Deschamps. 

Louis Desnoyers. 

Gustave Drouineau. 

Delaure. 

Andre Delrien. 

Ferdinand Denis. 

Duvicquet. 

Foufrede. 

Ernest Frouinet. 

Fievee. 

Francais de Nantes. 

Leon Gozlan. 

Eugene Guinot. 

Theophile Gautier. 

Leon Hal6vy. 

Jules Janin. 

Achille Jubinal. 

Laurent de Jussieu. 



Jol. 

Jay. 

Jouslin de la Salle. 

Keratray. 

La Mennais. 

De Lamotte-Laugou. 

Lasteyrie. 

Lesguillon. 

Laurentie. 

Leroi. 

Loeve-Weimar. 

Marrast. 

Mennechet. 

Merimee. 

Monmerqu6. 

Montemont. 

Charles Nodier. 

Marquis de Pastoret. 

Pichat. 

Panckouke. 

Perin. 

Pillet. 

Planche. 

Pouqueville. 

Roger. 

Saint Marc-Girardin. 

Saint-Beuve. 

Salvandy. 

De Senancourt. 

Frederic Souli6. 

Vatout. 

Thierry. 

Viardot. 

Villers. 

Villemain. 



FRENCH LITERATURE. 



143 



FEMALE WRITERS. 



D'Abrantes. 

Aucelot. 

Aragon. 

D'Ayzac. 

Belloc. 

De Brady. 

De Bawr. 

Bastide. 

Desbordes-Valinore. 

Dudevant. 

Dupin. 

Flahaut-Souza. 

Foa. 



Gay. 

Girardin. 

D'Hautpool. 

Keybeaud. 

Saint-Ouan. 

Segalas. 

De Salm. 

Soumet. 

Senancourt. 

Tastu. 

Ulliac-Tremadeure . 

Yoiart. 

Valdor. 



144 BRITISH LITERATURE. 



BRITISH LITERATURE. 

British literature may be divided into three periods, namely — 

1st Period, or Poetry of the Britons and Anglo-Saxons, from 
the supposed time of Ossian, A. d. 200, to the Norman Conquest. 

2d Period, or Poetry of the Normans and Anglo-Normans, from 
1066 to 1400. The fusion of the two languages was marked dur- 
ing the latter years of the twelfth century, and from this period 
may be dated what we now call the English language. 

3d Period, or English Poetry, properly so called; which period 
maybe subdivided into five Epochs, namely: 1. Epoch of Chaucer, 
from 1350 to 1550. 2. Epoch of Shakspeare and Spenser, from 
1550 to 1650. 3. Epoch of Milton and Dryden, from 1650 to 
1702. 4. Epoch of Pope and Young, from 1702 to 1800. 5. 
Epoch of Byron, Scott, and Moore, as representatives of the intel- 
lect of our triune kingdom. By grouping the secondary talents 
round these stars of the first magnitude in each epoch, a chronolo- 
gical remembrance will be easily obtained; and the minuteness of 
the Index to this work will, it is hoped, be found useful in satisfy- 
ing every other demand. 

The learning of the ancient Britons in their Druidical institutions, 
is attested by history. The islands of Scotland at a very remote 
period contained colleges for the education of young priests and 
princes; but a singularly jealous principle guided their directors. 
The pupils were not permitted to write down anything they might 
learn; consequently much time was lost in their studies, and, at 
least, their precious information was kept from the vulgar crowd. 
These establishments were only branches from the parent tree in 
Ireland, where colonies from Asia had long been spreading abroad 
the riches of learning. Ossian, the son of Fingal, is believed to 
have written his poems at the close of the second century. Ireland 
was one vast university long before Scotland, and the still tardier 
England, had thought of mental cultivation. Monuments of the 
talents and taste of the ancient Irish are still sufficiently great to 



SEVENTH CENTURY. 145 

reward the enthusiastic lover of research; and the intellectual pro- 
gress of the Bardic Druids of Scotland and Wales is readily traced 
in works which do honor to our British antiquaries. 

It has been said that St. Peter, or St. Paul, visited England. It 
is certain that the Christian religion was known, even in the north 
of the island, before the end of the second century. We have also 
the certitude that Pomponia, wife of Plautius, the proconsul of 
Britain, and Claudia, a British lady, married to a noble Bom an, 
were both Christians about this period. When we remember, too, 
that the highest intellectual polish had long been relished by the 
Romans, and that they encouraged learning and established semi- 
naries in every conquered country; that when such a man as Con- 
stantine the Great (a. d. 806) was born in our ancient northern 
capital, York, and educated in the island, we must conclude, that 
not only was intellectual cultivation known, but extensively cher- 
ished in Britain. The after struggles with the Saxons and Danes 
must greatly have impaired this flourishing condition, although it 
appears that the Christian religion spread gradually among the 
lower ranks till the time of Ethelbert, 596, when St. Augustine 
arrived with his mission from Pope Gregory the Great, to offer it 
formally to the king and his people in general. Bertha, his queen, 
daughter of Charibert, King of Paris, was already a Christian ; and 
from this period monasteries and schools were prosperous among 
the Britons. Gildas stands first among the early Saxon writers, 
and wrote, during the first half of the sixth century, a Latin tract 
on the History of Britain. JS r ennins is supposed to have written 
about the same time, but this is very doubtful; and the first un- 
questioned author we have is St. Columbanus, a native of Ireland. 
He wrote religious treatises and Latin poems. 

Ccedmon, the bard, composed in Anglo-Saxon; and he, with 
Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmsbury, Ccelfrid, Abbot of Wearmouth, 
and Felix, Abbot of Croyland, all known as chroniclers, bring us 
to the Venerable Bede. Bede's " Ecclesiastical History" gives proof 
of his learning and judgment. JEgnus, an Irish historian, was 
called Hagiograjphus, from having written the " Lives of the Saints" 
about this time. About the same period, the Pope Honorius made 
York an archbishop's see, and soon after the University of Cam- 
13 



146 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

bridge was founded by Sigebert, king of the East Angles. The 
influence of monkish power was at this moment, perhaps, at its cli- 
max in Britain. Not yet sufficiently cultivated to withstand the 
superstitions of the age, no less than five of our Saxon monarchs 
successively retired to these asylums, and gave the impetus to that 
movement of veneration for these institutions which, in the next 
three or four centuries, swallowed up the finest intellects of men, 
and the most amiable qualities of women, till the abuse became 
monstrous, and idleness was the universal vice of the people. It is 
recorded that Charlemagne sent for learned men from Britain to 
instruct his people (see Literature of France), and that our ambas- 
sador to his court, Flaccus Alcuinus, was a man of such talent and 
information, as completely to have fascinated that great and wise 
monarch. Alfred, our great and good king, began in 871 his reign 
of prudence, forethought, and consummate wisdom; and although 
his kingdom was torn by an overwhelming enemy, yet he found 
leisure to cultivate his mind, and offers a striking proof of the ad- 
vanced state of intellectual progress at this period. Though he 
modestly attributes his superiority to the fine intellects and talents 
of his accomplished mother, it is evident there must have been 
abundance of learned and eminent men around him. He had 
visited Rome with his father Ethelwolf, and it is not probable that 
they went alone; indeed, the fact of his mother's high state of cul- 
tivation attests the general position of education at this time, for 
we may conclude that she was not the only high-born lady who 
could read and admire poetry. No doubt many of our Saxon manu- 
scripts have shared the fate of those of the Greek and Roman 
authors, in the age of religious polemics, and have been erased by 
the monks, in order to be turned to their immediate service. We 
have proofs of what the Saxons could do, in " The Exeter Books' ' 
of Ccedmon; in " The Traveler's Song," and in the " Codex Yer- 
cellensis" and the u Chronicles." 

Alfred is ranked among the best and greatest of monarchs. In 
regard to his encouragement of learning, we find that he founded 
the University of Oxford, established schools throughout his do- 
minions, and, besides being the hero of sixty-five battles, was the 
best Saxon poet of the age. He translated Orosius, Boethius, and 



TENTH CENTURY. 147 

Bede (Latin writers) J also iEsop's Fables, from the Greek. Alfred's 
"Code of Laws" is a monument of his sound judgment; and his 
survey of England, called " The Roll of Winton," became the 
model for William the Conqueror's " Doomsday Book." 

JElfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, is the next certain author. 
He wrote, in his native tongue, a collection of " Homilies," " A 
Translation of the First Seven Books of the Bible," and some reli- 
gious treatises. He was also author of a Latin grammar. Cyne- 
wolf, Bishop of "Winchester, Wulfstone, Archbishop of York, and a 
few feebler pens, bring us to the time of the Conquest. During 
this time there were many seats of learning in England, many wri- 
ters, and many books; which latter are now mere objects of curiosity 
to the antiquary. This literature lasted till the breaking up of the 
language towards the close of the twelfth century. Considering 
the general state of Western Europe in the Middle Ages, our An- 
glo-Saxon forefathers may be regarded as a credit to our national 
history. After this period, the literature of England flowed 
through the pens of the Norman-French. Philip de Thaun wrote 
treatises on popular science in verse. Thorold wrote the ro- 
mance of " Roland." Geoffrey Gaimar was author of " A Chro- 
nicle of Anglo-Saxon Kings." These preceded Wace, a native of 
Jersey, who wrote a poem, entitled "Le Brut d'Angleterre." 
Geoffrey of Monmouth and Lay anion followed: the former wrote 
a " History of England f the latter translated from the Norman- 
French, Wace's poems into Anglo-Saxon. After these, we come 
to the rhyming chroniclers : Robert of Gloucester ', Robert Manning 
of Bourne j Langtoft of Bridlington, William ofMalmsbury, Henry 
of Huntingdon, Matthew of Westminster. Our composers of metri- 
cal romances followed, among whom Thomas of Ercildoun and 
Adam Davie are noted : the first for " Sir Tristram," the latter for 
" The Life of Alexander the Great." Several other metrical ro- 
mances exist; their style extended from the early part of Edward 
II. 's reign to the close of the fifteenth century. Michael Scotus 
was a very remarkable character of the thirteenth century, whose 
writings, according to Roger Bacon, were famous throughout Eu- 
rope. Matthew Paris, a monk of St. Alban's, has left us a history 
of England. Roger Bacon, a Franciscan monk, carried his learn- 



148 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

ing to such a point, as to have been considered under supernatural 
influence. His chemical experiments and mathematical calculations 
raised the astonishment of the vulgar to the highest degree, and 
made them declare that he dealt with evil spirits. The dawn of 
miscellaneous poetry appeared about the middle of the thirteenth 
century, when Henry III. sat on the throne of England, and Alex- 
ander II. on that of Scotland. But the earliest that can be said to 
possess literary merit, is an elegy on the death of Edward I. ; and 
the first name we meet with is that of Lawrence 31inot, who wrote 
short poems on the victories of Edward III. About the same time 
flourished Richard Rolle, who wrote metrical paraphrases of the 
Scriptures and other poems. We next find Langlande's u Vision 
of Pierce Ploughman," a satire of no little merit. " A History of 
Scotland," by John Fordun, bears the date of 1308; and the earn- 
est struggle, which the hardy inhabitants had made for their liberty 
against our Edward I., renders the work of great interest. Duns 
opposed Aquinas on the subject of grace. But the serious occupa- 
tion of war against the Scots, and in the Holy Land, were suflicient 
causes for the general neglect of learning; and never, perhaps, were 
the nobles of England less educated than at this time. Sir John 
MandeviWs, Travels belong to this period. He is our first writer 
in prose. Wickliffe's translation of the Old and New Testament, 
made them first known in the English language. At the court of 
Edward III. Geoffrey Chaucer was observed as a man of rank and 
talent. He held the position of gentleman of the bed-chamber, and 
afterwards was ambassador to Genoa; but although timid and re- 
served as a man, he was full of animation and wit as a writer. 
Chaucer despised the dull old rhyming chroniclers, and the more 
lively, frivolous minstrels, or troubadours. He aimed at the regu- 
lar manner of the illustrious Italians; writing allegory after Dante, 
tenderness after Petrarch, and humorous anecdote after Boccaccio. 
Chaucer rejected many Saxon words, and took the Norman-French 
in preference as softer; and thus gained for himself the title of 
father of English poetry. His chief work is called " Canterbury 
Tales." In these, he is peculiarly pleasing for the truth and nature 
he infuses into his characters; and he is besides highly picturesque 
and dramatic. Most of the Tales display passages of eminent beauty; 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 149 

but the story of " Griselda" is the one which is generally preferred 
as a whole. Throughout Europe it has passed into a proverb, and 
still finds a ready sympathy in every heart. Chaucer's prose works 
are " A Treatise on the Astralabe," written for the use of his son, 
and " The Testament of Love;" but his works were not known till 
some few years after Caxton had set up his printing press, which 
took place in 1471. Goiver was a friend of Chaucer's, and wrote 
first two Latin works, and then became much esteemed for his En- 
glish poem with a Latin title, " Confessio Amantis," which is a 
severe critique on the vices of the day. His French work, " Medi- 
tations Frangaises," was in considerable favor, and also his " Imi- 
tation of Ovid." Gower's works were not printed till nearly a 
hundred years after they were written; and that by Caxton, in 
1493. To this period belongs John Barbour, who celebrated in 
good verses, the epic life of King Robert Bruce ; a romance, as 
such poems were then called, which is still valued by the patriot 
sons of Scotland. Here must be placed the intelligent Bishop of 
Winchester, William of Wykeham, who, under Edward III. and 
his two successors, was distinguished for his own talents and his 
encouragement of learning; he was the founder of New College, 
Oxford, and of that at Winchester. About 1420, the Prior of the 
Monastery of St. Andrew in Scotland, Andrew of Wyntown, wrote 
his clever " Chronicle of the History of Scotland," which was pub- 
lished by his countryman Macpherson in 1795, and was a favorite 
book of Sir Walter Scott's. Hutcheon's metrical romance, called 
" The Gest of Arthur." Clerk's « Adventures of Sir Gowain," 
Holland's poem of " Howlate," all preceded " The Adventures of 
Sir William Wallace," by Blind Harry, a wandering bard, who 
was the last of the minstrel class in Scotland. 

The fifteenth century may be considered as opened by the graceful 
pen of James I. of Scotland, for the character of the compositions 
assumed a nobler air henceforth. He was nineteen years a prisoner 
in England; and during that time, often cheered his loneliness with 
his poetic talent. His chief poem is "The King's Quhair" (or 
Cahier), and contains many charming ideas. The versatile versifier, 
John Lydgate, is the next of note in England; but in the middle 
of this century, Scotland could boast of several poems noted for 

13* 



150 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

command of phraseology and fertility of -imagination. Robert 
Henry son wrote "The Testament of Oresseid," and a series of 
excellent fables. William Dunbar's writings are now warmly 
estimated, hut had remained in the obscurity of manuscript till the 
middle of last century. His poems are of three kinds : allegorical, 
moral, and comic. Gawin Douglas, Bishop of Dunkeld, was an- 
other successful northern poet. His best poem is styled u The Palace 
of Honor," which it is believed led Bunyan's mind in his composi- 
tion of " The Pilgrim's Progress." Tusser wrote the first didactic 
poem. 

Among the earliest prose writers was the beautiful Juliana 
Berners (sister to Lord Berners, the distinguished translator of 
Froissart), who, when she had become Prioress of Sopewell Nun- 
nery, recollected her youthful pleasures, and wrote "A Treatise on 
Hunting and Pishing," and one "On Heraldry," which are still 
renowned. Shortly after, Mrs. Boper, the eldest daughter of Sir 
Thomas More, is mentioned as being highly cultivated. The 
worthy chancellor, her father, amused himself with his pen, when 
weary of court life, and wrote his " Utopia" in Latin ; it was trans- 
lated into English by Bishop Burnet. Sir Thomas More wrote 
also the "Life of Bichard III. and the History of Edward V." Sir 
Thomas Eliot wrote the " Castle of Health." 

The age of the Medici in Italy was distinguished in English 
annals by the poetic talent of Lord Surrey, who stands alone for 
some years, as a green spot in the desert of original writers which 
reigned around him. Surrey introduced the sonnet, which became 
so completely a fashion among those who pretended at all to letters, 
that even the sanguinary, restless Henry VIII. was not contented 
till he had proved that he also could write sonnets! Lord Surrey 
sang the beauties of Geraldine, daughter of the Earl of Kildare, 
with a power and sweetness rarely surpassed. 

Sir Thomas Wyatt was another distinguished poet of the court 
of Henry VIII. , and was the first polished satirist in English lite- 
rature. Skelton, the learned tutor of Henry VIIL, distinguished 
by Erasmus as "the light and ornament of British literature," 
amused himself by writing poems, which arc singularly quaint and 
pithy. It is recorded by Roscoe, that our countryman, Thomas 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 151 

Linacer, studied the Greek language at Florence; and was so 
eminently distinguished by the elegance of his manners, and his 
singular modesty, that he is said to have been selected by Lorenzo 
de Medici as the associate of his sons in their studies. 

It was at this period that the English language received extensive 
additions from the Latin tongue. Hitherto, almost everything dis- 
tinguished had been written in Latin; and now that the use of the 
native tongue was encouraged in writings, Latinized expressions 
crept in naturally, to fill up, as it were, the deficiencies which 
marked our Saxon idiom, when dealing with compound, or abstract 
ideas. 

The discussions on religion called forth even the profligate Henry's 
exertion, and by his pen (aided by some of the learned men around 
him), he earned the title of "Defender of the Faith." But Henry's 
overbearing character effectively checked the buds of genius of that 
age, though it was greatly the fashion to be learned, and foreigners 
expressed themselves astonished at the height to which classical 
learning was carried in our universities. Henry VIII. founded 
Trinity College, at Cambridge, and in his youth drew forth the 
commendations of Erasmus, as a patron of letters. Inferior even 
to France in literary progress, England displayed, before the time 
of Henry VIII., a still more mortifying contrast with Italy. Italy 
had also her religious schisms and public distractions, but her arts 
and literature had always a place of shelter. They were even cher- 
ished by the rivalship of independent communities, and received 
encouragament from the opposite sources of commercial and eccle- 
siastical wealth; but we had no house of Medici. In England, the 
evils of civil war agitated society as one mass; there was no in- 
closure to fence in the fields of improvement, no mound to stem the 
torrent of public troubles; and then followed an additional circum- 
stance to quell the national genius, in the violent deaths for religious 
opinions. In an age of persecution, the living study of his own 
species must be comparatively darkened to the poet, and is decidedly 
so to the historian. Thus England did not enter into the career of 
social improvement so early as France; France lay nearer to the 
centre from which learning and the arts were spread over Europe, 
and the direct road they must take to England, was through her 



152 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

dominions. But it is for these reasons that the civilization of 
England is at this day of a higher order. It is the result of more 
urgent necessity. The advantage which France undoubtedly had in 
the beginning, is more than compensated by the superior develop- 
ment of intellect, which has long been our inheritance. The age 
of Louis XIV. was indeed a brilliant epoch for France, and still 
more so for her monarch; it was an age of glory, of splendor, and 
of luxury — of everything, in short, but national wisdom; and it 
stands the more prominent because it was not preceded or followed 
by anything that can be compared to it. The even tenor of our 
constant pace has carried us further in a wider road, and while we 
persevere in the same track, with as few interruptions to our pro- 
gress in science, in literature, and in the useful arts, as we have 
done for more than a century, our pride shall be, not that we have 
an age of Louis XIY., but that we may boast of all ages alike. 
The new opening of the stores of classic lore, of ancient history, and 
of Italian poetry, did at length contribute much to the incitement 
and the perfection of our national genius. Ancient superstitions 
lingered among the people, as with others, at the first dawn of 
mental power, so that the romance of human life had not then 
departed; the martial and heroic spirit were not dead; for the age 
of Elizabeth was an age of peace, yet the sound of civil combat 
might be, as it were, still heard in the distance. The universities 
of England at this period, says Roger Ascham, Queen Elizabeth's 
tutor, were equal to any others in France, in Spain, in Germany, 
or in Italy. Sir David Lindsay, a page to James Y. of Scotland, 
was a graceful poet, in this age of harsh religious contention, when 
the Reformers of the North thundered their eloquent rebukes against 
the papal see. His chief poems are satirical and humorous, as 
"The Dream," "The Complaint," &c. He also wrote dramas, gross 
and inelegant, though full of wit. BeUenden wrote in prose " The 
Complaint of Scotland." The beautiful Queen Mary brought over 
from her loved France much of its fascinating frivolity, but intro- 
duced a spirit of elegance and taste for letters, hitherto little thought 
of. Mary's library, as delivered up to her son, James VI., is cha- 
racteristic of her mind: French authors and French translations; a 
variety of chronicles; several romances; Petrarch's sonnets; Boc- 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 153 

caccio's tales; Ariosto's "Orlando;" and besides these, her favorite 
poets, Alain, Chartier, Ronsard, and Marot. The poor young 
queen's plaintive lines on quitting France, are no mean specimen 
of her taste and delicacy of feeling. Robert Southwell's " Valley 
of Tears," and Thomas Watson's "Sonnets," are of this period. 
Clapperton penned some remarkable stanzas in his poem on " Mar- 
riage." 

The dearness of parchment, and the slowness of scribes, made 
manuscripts purchasable only by princely wealth. It was the dis- 
covery of paper made from rags, and the novel art of taking copies 
without penmen, which made books become mere objects of com- 
merce, and dispersed the treasures of the mind so freely through 
the world. One great reason for the development of the human 
intellect in England at this epoch, proceeded from the freedom with 
which the people were allowed to judge of the doctrines, and can- 
vass the texts, of the sacred writings. The keen interest with 
which they now perused the Bible, hitherto a sealed book to most 
of them, is allowed to have given the first impulse to the practice 
of reading, in both parts of the island, and to have been one of the 
causes of the flourishing literary period which followed. Sir John 
Fortescue had written his work on the " Monarchy of England." 
Fabian and Edward Mall opened the path of historical prose writers. 
Lord Burleigh wrote his "Precepts for Conduct." It was Burleigh 
who put forth the first newspaper. Sir John Cheke was the first 
professor of Greek at Cambridge, and the first who attempted to 
give precepts and models for the improvement of English composi- 
tion. About the same period, Thomas Wilson published at Cam- 
bridge his art of " Rhetoric." William Grocin was professor of 
Greek at Oxford about the same time; which language he had stu- 
died at Florence under Chalcondyles, Latimer introduced cheerful 
morality into his sermons instead of legendary superstition. Tho- 
mas, the historian of Italy, Cavendish, the biographer of Wolsey, 
and Roger Ascham's " Schoolmaster," may be given to the reign 
of Mary, a period little distinguished for the happy leisure neces- 
sary for literary pursuits, and looked upon with regret that Christ- 
ianity should have been so ill understood. We find recorded, 
about this period, the performance of mysteries and moralities at 



154 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

Kilkenny, in honor of Mary being proclaimed Queen. " God's 
Promises in the Old Law," " Saint John Baptist's Preachings/' 
" Christ's Baptizing," &c, were written by Bale, Bishop of Ossory, 
for the above occasion. During the reigns of Edward VI. and 
Mary, religious controversy occupied every pen, and rather minis- 
tered to the passions, than improved the morals of the people; wit- 
ness the pamphlets of Fischer, Bishop of Rochester, against Luther. 
Elizabeth appeared, and her own talents and taste rapidly aug- 
mented the literary power of the English mind. She filled her 
court with men calculated to shine in almost every field of intel- 
lectual exertion. Her successors, James and Charles, resembled 
her in some respects; and, during their reigns, the impulse which 
she had given to literature, experienced rather an increase than a 
decline. There was something, indeed, in the policy, as well as 
in the personal character, of all these sovereigns, which proved fa- 
vorable to literature. The study of the belles lettres was, in some 
measure, identified with the courtly and arbitrary principles of the 
times ; not so much, perhaps, from any enlightened spirit in those 
who supported such principles, as from a desire of opposing the 
Puritans, and other malcontents, whose religious doctrines taught 
them to despise some departments of elegant literature, and utterly 
to condemn others. 

There can be no doubt that the drama, for instance, chiefly owed 
its encouragement, under Elizabeth and her successors, to a spirit 
of hostility to the Puritans, who, not unjustly, repudiated it for its 
immorality. We must, at the same time, allow much to the influ- 
ence which such a court as that of England, during these three 
reigns, was calculated to have upon men of literary tendencies. 
Almost all the poets, and many of the other writers, were either 
courtiers themselves or under the immediate protection of courtiers; 
and were constantly experiencing the smiles, and not unfrequently 
the solid benefactions, of royalty. Whatever, then, was refined, or 
gay, or distinguished in this country and at this time, came, with 
its full influence upon literature. 

The works brought forth under these circumstances, have been 
very aptly compared to the productions of a soil for the first time 
broken up, when all indigenous plants spring up at once with a 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 155 

rank and irrepressible fertility, and display whatever is peculiar and 
excellent in their nature, on a scale the most conspicuous and mag- 
nificent. The ability to write having been suddenly created, the 
whole world of character, imagery, and sentiment, as well as of in- 
formation and philosophy, lay ready for the use of those possessed 
of the gift, and was appropriated accordingly. As might be ex- 
pected, where there was less rule of art than opulence of materials, 
the productions of these writers are not unfrequently deficient in 
taste, and contain much that is foreign to the purpose; in short, 
systematic cultivation was wanting. On this account, the refined 
taste of the eighteenth century condemned most of the productions 
of the sixteenth and seventeenth to oblivion; and it is only of late 
that they have once more obtained their deserved reputation. After 
every proper deduction has been made, enough remains to fix this 
era as by far the brightest in English literature. The sixty or se- 
venty years that elapsed from the middle of Elizabeth's reign to 
the period of the Restoration are unexampled in history. In point 
of force and originality of genius, neither the age of Pericles, nor 
that of Augustus, nor the times of Leo X. or of Louis XIV., can 
come at all into comparison, for in that short period we shall find 
the names of most of the greatest men that this nation has pro- 
duced. 

The excellent Dr. John Collet was famed for his uncommon learn- 
ing, and founded the admirable school of St. Paul's. It was under 
his patronage that William Lily wrote his grammar, and attempted 
to write comedy. He educated Leland the celebrated antiquary. 
William Tynedale published the first copy of the Bible in English, 
in Queen Mary's time. John Heywood was one of the first drama- 
tic writers. The poetic talent, in particular, suddenly burst forth 
in Elizabeth's reign. Sackville wrote his tragedy of " G-orboduc." 
" Mustapha," by Lord Brook, was a feeble effort; while the most 
accomplished gentleman of her court, Sir Philip Sidney, was one 
of the best of our early poets, although his chief work, " Arcadia," 
a pastoral romance, is in prose. Gascoigne and Tuberville, both 
aspired to distinction as poets, and won attention for a little time. 
Richard Barnfield wrote several volumes of poetry; one piece of 
which is much valued, commencing " As it fell upon a day." 



156 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

Sylvester's " Soul's Errand" was written also at this time ; and the 
unhappy Southwell's poems went through eleven editions in sis 
years. Samuel Daniel is a voluminous, but dull poet of this epoch. 
" A History of the Civil War" is his longest poem; his minor 
pieces are much more valued. Drayton's u Polyalbion," a long 
poem, descriptive of England, belongs to the time of James I., 
while Fairfax's translation of Tasso's " Jerusalem Delivered" was 
made in Elizabeth's; and Sir John Harington translated Ariosto. 
Sir John Davies wrote a poem " On the Soul of Man," which has 
good verses. Sir Philip Sidney, as the patron of Spenser, proved 
his judgment to be as great as his taste. " The Faery Queen," and 
" The Shepherd's Calendar," of Spenser, are the delight of every 
age; he struck the lyre with infinite power and sweetness; he 
sketched with great delicacy and precision; but his heroes being 
almost always mere abstract personifications of some virtue, or some 
vice, we generally know what they are to do; hence we are never 
entertained with pictures of manners in " The Faery Queen," while 
these form one of the greatest charms of Boiardo, Berni, and Ariosto, 
his cotemporaries. Sir Walter Raleigh was a poet; but he also 
wrote history, when condemned to the seclusion of a prison by the 
injustice of James I. His adventurous and chivalrous spirit had 
delighted the court of Elizabeth, and his song of " The Shepherd 
to the Flowers" charms all lovers of nature. Raleigh's u History 
of the World" is read with melancholy interest, by those who have 
followed the precarious life of its author, as courtier, navigator, 
colonizer, and prisoner. Thomas Kendal's " Hours of Epigrams," 
Nicolas Breton's " Works of a Young Wit," with Henry Consta- 
ble's fugitive poems, are all of this period, as minor efforts of the 
pen. Marlowe, Ben Jonson, Massinger, with the twin friends, 
Beaumont and Fletcher, appeared on the dramatic horizon, to pre- 
pare the mind, by their opening dawn of many beauties, for glorious 
Shalcspeare ! 

The earliest dramatic attempts in England, as everywhere else, 
were the mysteries and moralities. But it appears that these were 
known amongst us even sooner than in other countries; for in the 
" History of the Council of Constance," it is recorded that English 
prelates entertained their friends, in one of the intervals between 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 157 

the sittings, with a spiritual play in Latin, such as was not known 
to the other members of the Council, or, at least, not in such per- 
fection. Marlowe wrote seven plays, and made a great improve- 
ment in theatrical literature. It is but justice to mention, also, his 
drama, entitled " The Life and Death of Dr. Faustus," which is 
written with a force and freedom very remarkable; and, by calling 
in the aid of magic and supernatural agency, he has produced a 
work full of power, novelty, and variety, though much inferior to 
the work of Goethe on the same subject. Marlowe's song, " Come 
live with me/' is one of the sweetest we have; and his translation 
of the opening of the " Hero and Leander" of Musaeus is remark- 
ably good. Ben Jonson' s dramatic talent was so great, that he was 
preferred, in his lifetime, to Shakspeare. His comic powers are 
especially great, although "Every Man in his Humor/' and "The 
Alchemist," are all that are yet much admired. Ben Jonson was 
highly gifted; he had wit, observation, judgment, memory, and 
learning. His minor poems are exquisite. Robert Merrick was a 
spirited writer of lyrics, and friend of Jonson. Massinger wrote a 
number of comedies, but only one has kept possession of the stage, 
" A New Way to pay Old Debts." His best tragedy is considered 
to be " The Duke of Milan." There are many beauties scattered 
through his works, with great purity of style and delicacy of man- 
ners. 

But it is in Shakspeare that our wealth is inexhaustible. His 
personages act upon principles arising from genuine passion, very 
little modified by particular forms; their pleasures and pains are 
communicable to all times and all places; they are natural and 
therefore durable. His plays are expressions of the passions, not 
descriptions of them. His imagination is of the same powerful 
kind as his conception of character; it unites the most opposite 
extremes; and he has such magic power over words, that one alone 
is frequently found to be so happily employed, that it is a picture 
in itself. "Macbeth," "Othello," "Hamlet," "Romeo and Juliet," 
are immortal in tragedy; while "The Merry Wives of Windsor," 
"Twelfth Night," "The Taming of the Shrew," "The Comedy of 
Errors," are as great in comedy. He has also enriched our history 
with words that we never forget, and with poetry that clings to our 
14 



158 



BRITISH LITERATURE. 



most intimate affections. The Greeks and Romans, especially the 
latter, stand before us, not imaginary paintings of a poet, but stern 
and living realities. His wonderful genius is considered to appear 
greatest in those plays where he gives way entirely to his imagina- 
tion, and raises his fancy to a flight above the limits of the visible 
world, as in "The Tempest/' "A Midsummer Night's Dream/' 1 
"Macbeth," and "Hamlet." 

Shakspeare's plays are believed to have been written in the fol- 
lowing order: — ■ 



1st Part of Henry VI. 
2d Part of Henry VI. 
3d Part of Henry VI. 
The Midsummer Night's 
Dream .... 
The Comedy of Errors 
The Taming of the Shrew 
Love's Labors Lost 
Two Gentlemen of Verona 
Romeo and Juliet 
Hamlet .... 
King John 
Richard II. 
Richard III. . 
1st Part of Henry IV. 
2d Part of Henry IV. 
The Merchant of Venice . 
All's Well that Ends Well 



The fifty- three plays which are published as the joint work of 
Beaumont and Fletcher, confer upon them as much honor as poets 
as their steady friendship as men. It is said that Fletcher had the 
fancy, Beaumont the judgment. Fletcher wrote, while Beaumont 
planned the fable and corrected the dialogue of his more witty and 
volatile friend; but they have leaned to the vices of the age, and 
have allowed coarseness and indelicacy to usurp frequently the place 
of intellect. Sir Henry Wotton's good sense and graceful poems 
belong to this period. Grafton, the industrious printer, during the 



A. D. 




A. D. 


1589 


Henry V 


1599 


1591 


Much Ado about Nothing . 


1600 


1591 


As You Like It ■ . 


1600 




Merry Wives' of Windsor . 


1601 


1592 


Henry VIII. . 


1601 


1593 


Troilus and Cressida 


1602 


1594 


Measure for Measure 


1603 


1594 


The Winter's Tale . 


1604 


1595 


King Lear 


1605 


1595 


Cymbelino 


1605 


1596 


Macbeth .... 


1606 


1596 


Julius Cgesar 


1607 


1597 


Antony and Cleopatra 


1608 


1597 


Timon of Athens 


1609 


1597 


Coriolanus 


1610 


1598 


Othello ... 


1611 


1598 


The Tempest . 


1612 


1598 


Twelfth Night . 


1614 



SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY. 159 

reigns of Henry VIII. and three succeeding rcigns ; wrote also with 
tact and energy. % 

James I. of England was too pedantic and too vain to he a liberal 
encourager of learning; hut the earnest discussions on Romanist 
and Protestant questions led to much serious writing in his time. 
It was considered necessary to make a new translation of the Bible, 
and in 1611 our present translation was published by order of James. 
The king himself wrote a work called "Basilicon Doron," and an- 
other on the subject of " Witchcraft." Sir Thomas Ovcrbury and 
Buikop Earle were clever sketchers of character. Bishop Jewel 
wrote his "Apology for the Church of England." John Knox 
wrote his "History of the Reformation;" Buchanan, his "History 
of Scotland ;" Holinshed, his " History of England." Baron 
Napier was the celebrated inventor of logarithms, and wrote 
" Commentaries on the Apocalypse." Hooker earned the title of 
"judicious," and perpetuated his name, with others of a later date, 
for that truthfulness and spirit which render all writings immortal, 
though the fashion of them may have faded into oblivion. Echoard 
Wriyht was one of the first writers of travels, and constructed a 
remarkable sphere. Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury, wrote a 
" History of the Massacres of the Valteline." Leland was a writer 
of antiquarian researches. HacMnyt was a great collector of voy- 
ages; lils works are continued by Purchas. Camden wrote "Annals 
of Queen Elizabeth" about the same time that Sir Edward Coke 
wrote his invaluable " Institutes on the Laws of England." Camden 
made extensive antiquarian researches, and left his library to Sir 
Robert Cotton, who had the same tastes; this last bequeathed the 
whole to the British Museum. Peter Heylin published his "Micro- 
cosmus." Archbishop Usher warmly opposed the Romanists, and 
also published his "Annales." Chillingworth wrote "Religion of 
the Protestants a safe Way to Salvation." John Hales is of the 
same class. Gandon wrote the " Ikon Basilike," in hopes of saving 
the life of Charles I., by appealing to the feelings of the people. 
The great Lord Bacon, in his work called " Instauration of the 
Sciences," obtained so vast a renown for his mental powers, that 
his moral weakness is often forgotten. His chief works are " The 
Progress and Dignity of the Sciences;" "Natural History;" "Moral, 



160 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

Political, and Historical Essays ;" a number of treatises on physics, 
metaphysics, and chemistry, and "Portraits of Great Men." But 
it is the "Novum Organon" that embraces the great principles 
which have rendered his name second only to that of Aristotle as a 
practical philosopher. There is a pleasing volume from the pen of 
Owen Feltham, entitled "Resolves — Divine, Moral, and Political," 
in which the author much resembles Bacon. Burton wrote his 
"Anatomy of Melancholy." May, Hay tear d, Knolles, Yfilson, and 
Baker were historians of middle rank, but are all useful. The 
witty Selden wrote, "On the Civil Government of England," and 
"A Defence of the King's Dominion over the Sea." Sandys, 
Lithgone, Howell, and Thomas Herbert were intelligent travelers 
of this period. Dempster, a Scotchman, wrote some clever works 
in Latin on various subjects. Bishop Joseph Hall wrote some able 
satires. Archbishop Parker was a great collector of the works of 
the Reformers. Fox's "Book of Martyrs" became highly popular. 
With the poets of the seventeenth century was born the love of 
form. Elegance and wit try to supersede imagination and passion. 
Waller ranks the first as a poet of this class, and is still estimated 
as a refiner and improver of our poetical diction. Cowley has more 
energy, and a better philosophy. He praises " Omida," a lady of 
that age, Mrs. K. Philips, who attempted poetry. Chapman, the 
quaint translator of Homer; Careio, another courtier-like poet of 
Waller's class; Sir John Suckling ; Quarles, the puritan; Broicne, 
the pastoral poet; Phineas and Giles Fletcher, brothers, of consi- 
derable merit as minor poets; Withers, the satirist; George Herbert; 
Sir Richard Fanshaw, who translated Camoens; Donne, who lives 
in the beautiful lines addressed to his wife, and is considered the 
first of the metaphysical poets; all are writers of this period, and 
who, amidst much worthless versifying, have occasional lines of a 
high order of poetry. Sir John Denham won from the severe Dr. 
Johnson the title of "majestic;" Sir William Davcnant wrote 
" Gondibert;" Cleveland was a satirist; Shirley, a dramatist; Cra- 
shaio, a religious poet; Lovelace, a lyric poet. Meantime, Scot- 
land had had her Alexander Scot, Alexander Montgomery, Alexan- 
der Hume, King James VI., the Earh of Ancrum and Stirling, 
Drummond, and Sir Robert Jyton, as native poets, with the two 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 161 

classical Latinists George Buchanan and Dr. Arthur Johnston, who 
have been styled the Scottish Virgil and the Scottish Ovid. David 
Caldcricood and Archbishop Spottiswoode both wrote a history of 
Scotland. Sir James Mcloil's "Court History," and John Lesley's 
" History of Scotland," are of the same epoch. 

The outline of our British drama may be traced from " miracle 
plays/' acted in 1119, through a vast number of inferior writers, 
but in whose works are to be found glimpses of taste and genius 
worthy of notice; as in Heyioood, Udall, Still, Sackeville, Fdwards, 
Whetstone, Lyly, Peele, Kid, Nash, Lodge, Munday, Chettie, and 
many more. There are also several anonymous plays worth atten- 
tion; and then came the brilliant writers, Marlowe, Ben Jonson, 
Beaumont and Fletcher, Shahspeare, and Massinger. These 
were succeeded by a host of inferior dramatists, as Dehher, Webster, 
Jlliddlcfon, Marston, Robert Taylor, Roicley, Tumour, Coohe, 
Nabbes, Field, Day, Glapthome, Randolph, Brome, Ford. After 
these there was a long cessation of the regular drama; the country 
was convulsed with civil war. 

These minor geniuses bring us to the greatest epic poet of his 
country; but the age was not prepared to admire him, and Milton 
was more known as the secretary of Cromwell than as the author of 
" Paradise Lost." In regard to Milton, we scarcely know whether 
to prefer his sublimity or his beauty; his power over both was 
transcendent. The Satan of Milton is the most magnificent creation 
in poetry. Those parts of the poem which relate to our first pa- 
rents are given with extreme beauty. Milton and Dante have been 
frequently compared; both are the most powerful poets of their 
country, but Dante's genius has not the grasp or the soaring power 
of Milton. Dante's strength is made up of units; his talent con- 
sists in a clear and striking detail of facts. Milton's genius was 
massy and congregated. Milton has been considered the greatest 
epic poet of the world; there arc certainly a grandeur of conception 
and a breadth of character pervading this poem, from beginning to 
end, that we scarcely admit to exist in any other poet. The " Pa- 
radise Regained" is more feeble. " Lycidas" is a lovely pastoral 
elegy. " Comus," " Samson Agonistes," and his sonnets, speak 
highly of his poetic power. Milton's prose works are splendid in 

14* 



162 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

diction; but some of them bear painful stamp of the violent preju- 
dices of bis times. 

Tbe prose writers of the fourth period (including the Common- 
wealth, reigns of Charles II., and James II.) attained a high de- 
gree of perfection. The chief writers on philosophical and political 
subjects are Milton, Cowley, Sidney, Temple, Burnet, and Locke; 
in history, there were Clarendon and Burnet; in divinity, Barrow, 
Tillotson, Stilling fleet, Sherlock, South, Calamy, Baxter, and Bar- 
clay; in miscellaneous literature, Fuller, Walton, L' Estrange, 
Dry dm, and Sir Thomas Browne; in physical science, or natural 
philosophy, Boyle, Barrow, and Sir Isaac Neicton. Milton's 
" Iconoclastes," or the Image-breaker, and his " Defence of the 
English People," in answer to Salmasius's " Defence of the King," 
with a " History of England" to the Conquest, are his chief prose 
works. Cowley wrote " Discourse on the Government of Cromwell." 
Algernon Sydney, the English Cicero, wrote most eloquently " On 
Government;" but the age was unequal, in its dawning strength, to 
protect him. Sir William Temple's "Remarks on the United 
Provinces," " Memoirs from 1672 to 1692," and " Essay on An- 
cient and Modern Learning," are models for style. This last work 
created a long literary controversy throughout Europe. Archbishop 
Tillotson was another writer who greatly improved the English 
tongue. His sermons are at once eloquent, perspicuous, and con- 
vincing. Fuller wrote his "Worthies of England." Dugdale 
wrote his " Antiquarian History of Warwickshire," a most enter- 
taining work. Stoice, Spehnan, and Speed are antiquarians of this 
epoch. Stowe's " Survey of London," and Spchnan's " Works on 
Ancient Laws," are of great value. Clarendon's " History of the 
Rebellion," is the most remarkable work of this age. His " Sur- 
vey of the Leviathan," is an essay in answer to Hobbes' work, enti- 
tled " The Leviathan," which was publicly censured by Parliament. 
Hobbes was the first of that class of doubting philosophers who 
have since awakened such various thoughts on the subject of divine 
revelation. Lord Herbert of Cherbury was a friend of Hobbes, and 
wrote on the same subjects. Jeremy Taylor, a chaplain to Charles 
I., wrote several excellent defences of the church; but when the 
Parliament was successful, Taylor retired into Wales, and kept a 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 163 

school for the maintenance of his family. It was in this humble 
position that he penned those copious and fervent " Discourses" 
which have rendered him one of the first writers in the English 
language. Sir Thomas Browne is another of the same class of 
eloquent writers on religious topics at this period. Bishop Wilson 
published his " Principles and Duties of Christianity;" and a few 
years later, Bishop Warburton wrote his " Divine Legation of 
Moses." Evelyn, the founder of the Royal Society, wrote his 
" Sylva," or treatise on Forest Trees. The Honorable Robert Boyle 
stands peculiarly conspicuous for his efforts in spreading abroad 
Christianity. He wrote " A free Inquiry into the vulgarly re- 
ceived Notion of Nature," and various other treatises. Harrington's 
political work of " Oceana," and the " Letters" of Lady Russell, 
belong to this period. Charleton was a lively describer of charac- 
ter; and, in his " Discourses concerning the different Wits of Men," 
awoke the first ideas of phrenology. Cuchcorth wrote his " True 
Intellectual System of the Universe." Sir Roger L' Estrange dis- 
graced his pen by selling it to political party, and stands the first 
on record for this dishonor. The excellent Stillingfleet wrote his 
u Origines Sacrse." Dr. Robert South is called the wittiest .of 
English divines, and was an earnest supporter of the Church of 
England in its troubles. Bishop Wilkins and Bishop Pearson were 
noted for their theological works. Bishop Sprat wrote " The Life 
of Cowley," and various sermons : his style is considered the best of 
the middle period. Dr. Henry More was a learned cultivator of the 
Platonic philosophy, and wrote " The Mysteries of G-odliness," &c. 
Richard Baxter was an eminent nonconformist; his best work is 
entitled " The Saint's Everlasting Rest." Dr. John Owen was of 
the Independents, and wrote " An Exposition on the Epistle to the 
Hebrews." Edward Calamy was in great favor with the Presby- 
terian party. Llis sermons are published under the title of " The 
Godly Man's Ark." Flavel was another zealous nonconformist. 
His works are in a plain, perspicuous style; his < r Husbandry Spi- 
ritualized," and " Navigation Spiritualized," are much valued by 
the Calvinists. Mattheio Henry is another of the eminent noncon- 
formist divines of this period. George Fox founded the Society of 
Friends, and left numerous writings. Robert Barclay wrote his 



164 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

celebrated " Apology for the Quakers." William Penn was an- 
other anxious supporter of the same sect, and wrote " Sacred Histo- 
ries of the Old and New Testament." John Bunyan was a mem- 
ber of the Baptist congregation, and wrote his admirable " Pilgrim's 
Progress" while in prison for his religious opinions. His sermons, 
or essays, are also much valued. 

While Milton was attracted by the serious view of the Puritan 
professions, Butler was looking at their ludicrous exaggerations, and 
turning them to account in his clever poem of " Hudibras f his 
prose works are also witty, and full of pithy truths. But the resto- 
ration of Charles II, was fatal to poetry. The Earl of Rochester, 
this king's favorite, had both wit and taste, which he sadly mis- 
used. Not so the Earl of Roscommon; whose poems are, at least, 
free from indecency. Sir Charles Sedley's poems are also with- 
out license. The Duke and Duchess of Neiocastle wrote some pretty 
things ; for there were some writers who partook of the draught of 
wit and gayety brought over from France by the king and his fol- 
lowers without utterly abandoning their previous tastes, or the 
wisdom of their English ancestors. The fine patriotic mind of 
Andrew Marvel inspired some pleasant verse. Old Izaah Walton 
wrote his charming volume, "The Complete Angler." Cotton 
wrote his " Emigrants in the Bermudas," and "Visions in Verse." 
There was Vaughcm's harsh poetry, and Stanley's " Eschylus f 
but, in fact, the first name of this period is that of Dryden. He 
was at the head of his school as a bitter, biting satirist ; a writer of 
sensible, sonorous, masculine verse. His "Ode on St. Cecilia's 
Day," his " Satires," and his " Fables," will ever perpetuate his 
name. His plays want natural pathos and stage propriety; of 
these, he wrote a considerable number, which are rarely heard of : 
" Don Sebastian," and " All for Love," are the best. Dryden 
translated Virgil's iEneid into very graceful verse, and made trans- 
lations also of Plutarch, Juvenal, and Persius. Sir George Ethe- 
ridge, Wychcj'ley, Thomas Shadwell, and Mrs. Aphra Behn were 
rival dramatists of the same day. Otway and Lee were more re- 
nowned cotemporaries. Otway was acutely sensitive, and has writ- 
ten a play, entitled "Venice Preserved," which must please as long 
as truth of feeling and harmony of language subsist. Lee was 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1G5 

powerful, but bombastic ; his " Rival Queens" is still occasionally 
acted. Jloicc followed Lee's manner, but had more pathos ; his 
" Jane Shore" is yet liked. Conyrcves " Mourning Bride" is of 
the same era, and is identified with the first success of Mrs. Sid- 
dons in London. Mrs. GentUvre was peculiarly happy in her 
arrangement of plot, and is a very successful writer of comedy. 
/Southern's tragedy of " Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage," is yet a 
favorite. 

Aclclison may stand at the opening of the eighteenth century as 
the founder of the taste and style of a school which reigned through 
a great number of years, and which still deserves the title of classi- 
cal. Addison tried his strength in tragedy, but his " Cato" has 
too much classic stiffness. It reads admirably, and dwells in the 
memory of every lover of fine thoughts and fine verse ; but there 
is not action enough in it for the stage. But if Addison did not 
shine in this department of literature, he amply compensated by the 
elegance of his prose writings, which will be named later. Hervey 
wrote his "Meditations among the Tombs." Philips produced his 
" Splendid Shilling." Charles Sackville, Duke of Dorset, wrote 
a few sweet poems. Parnell bequeathed us his graceful poem of 
"The Hermit." The Duke of Buckingham wrote an "Essay on 
Poetry." Gay wrote some admirable fables, some fine ballads (as 
" Black-eyed Susan"), and his comedy of " The Beggar's Opera." 
Matthew Prior is better remembered as the author of a poem 
called " The Nut-brown Maid," than as Secretary of State. Green 
wrote a poem called " Spleen." Then we had Lillo, the tragic 
poet of the middle and familiar life ; and he is a master of potent 
effect in his exhibition of human suffering, as in " George Barnwell," 
and "Fatal Curiosity." At length, came the better known and 
more celebrated Alexander Pope. He was a fit successor to the 
chair of Dryden ; these two are the great masters of the artificial, 
or classical style of poetry, in opposition to the romantic, or Shaks- 
pearian style ; and they have a claim upon our gratitude as having 
produced a kind and degree of excellence which existed equally no- 
where else. Pope had the same stinging sarcasm, and the same 
good sense as Dryden; the same hatred of what is base and mean, 
with something more of refinement, and a clearer moral view, than 



166 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

can be ascribed to his predecessor : each, however, belonged to his 
age, and illustrated it finely. Pope wisely thought, that if a refor- 
mation in morals was to be effected, it must be by the example, not 
of the poor, but of the high-born and opulent ; and he lashed the 
gilded follies and sins of the wealthy with infinite good-will. His 
poem of " The Rape of the Lock" is a literary jewel of classic 
grace and wit : his " Essay on Man," and " Essay on Criticism," 
are highly valued for their acute reasoning and good sense; but his 
master-piece, as a poem, is " The Epistle of Eloisa to Abelard." 
Pope's translations of the Iliad and Odyssey are fine specimens of 
the beauty of the English language. 

The poet Young seems to have had a peculiar preference for 
serious subjects, although a man of gay temperament, and inclined 
to forget the reverses of life in his own pilgrimage. His "Night 
Thoughts," as a whole, is a poem that carries a distempered view 
of human life, so that its entire perusal is a painful and tedious 
task; yet it presents many passages of sublime expression, profound 
reflection, and striking imagery. In his tragedy of " Revenge," he 
is scholastic and monkish. 

The name of Pope brings to mind his fair friend (and bitter 
enemy !) the witty and graceful writer of letters, Lady Mary Worthy 
Montague. Dr. Arbutlinot was one of the brilliant wits of the same 
age; his satirical "History of John Bull," has given a cognomen 
to Britain, which will not easily be forgotten. Rymer wrote " Cri- 
ticisms on the Tragic Writers;" and splenetically pulls to pieces 
poor Shakspeare ; Rymer has, however, left a name which is much 
valued by historians. He formed a collection of all the public 
transactions, treaties, conventions, and state letters, and this is 
esteemed one of our most authentic and valuable records; the work 
is entitled " Rymer' s Foedera." Ochley, Strype, and Carte wrote 
English history about this time; and Thomas Stanley's "History 
of Philosophy," Anthony Wood's "Athense Oxonienses," Elias 
Ashmole's "Institution of the Order of the Garter," John Aubry's 
"Miscellanies," all belong to Rymer's period. Very different to 
these ponderous writers were Tom D' TJrfey and Tom Brown, the 
first a merry writer of comedies, the last known in his age for his 
dialogues and poems. Meanwhile Scotland had many learned men, 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 167 

but only Sir George Mackenzie as an author. He wrote an im- 
portant "Memorial of the Affairs of Scotland," and "Essays." He 
was an eminent judge under Charles II. and James II. 

During the latter part of the seventeenth century, while England 
was suffering from the consequences of civil war, the public taste 
had become corrupted, insipid, tame, and sickly; the language itself 
was neglected, and the great old poets were sinking fast into obli- 
vion; but so soon as, by a fortunate revolution, the political inde- 
pendence of England came again to be displayed, her national 
literature also began to revive. The French taste (which the 
English had adopted after the Puritan period had passed away) 
became every day weaker; and they recurred, at last, with redou- 
bled affection, to the old writers of their own country. Many 
circumstances tended to make the short reign of Anne illustrious — 
the campaigns of Marlborough, the new spectacle of seeiDg England 
at the head of a successful continental confederacy, and the literary 
characters of the age. Many of these were called to fill active 
stations; not to mention inferior instances, we may recollect the 
negotiations of Prior, and the uncommonly important situation 
Swift held with the Tory administration; the political ambition of 
Bolinghrohe, equaling his literary aspirations; and the domestic 
question then at issue, whether the House of Hanover should suc- 
ceed, or the House of Stuart be restored. In the midst of these 
feelings, the opening of the eighteenth century was remarkable for 
a class of writers, peculiarly eminent for wit, elegance, and taste. 
These were the distinguished authors of those essays published 
periodically, which have placed British literature in so high a rank. 
While Addison was in Ireland as secretary to Lord Wharton, Sit 
Richard Steele commenced the first of these publications under the 
title of the " Tatler," to which Addison liberally contributed. Twice 
in the week, a short paper appeared, so conducted as to lash the 
vices of the age, at the same time that it promulgated virtue, under 
its most pleasing form. It was the great aim of these papers, that 
no subject connected with the good of mankind should be left un- 
touched; some are expressly devoted to religious topics; and those 
for Saturday in the " Spectator," written by Addison, contain some 
of the most beautiful reflections ever produced. Eustace Budgell 



168 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

wrote the papers in the "Spectator" that are signed X. John 
Hughes was another contributor, and is known as the author of a 
play called the "Siege of Damascus." Sir Richard Steele wrote 
also many comedies, among which "The Conscious Lovers" is the 
best. " The Guardian" was another of these periodicals, in which 
Addison gave his masterly touches; and "The Freeholder" was 
attempted in defence of Government, but the violence of politics 
put an end to it. Addison's "Tour through Italy" is esteemed by 
all lovers of classical associations. " The Adventurer" was another 
periodical under the direction of Dr. Haiokesioorth. "The World," 
"The Connoisseur," "The Mirror," "The Lounger," were of the 
same class. 

Lord Shaftesbury wrote "Characteristics of Men, Manners, 
Opinions, and Times;" and the great philosopher John Locke gave 
to the world his celebrated "Essay on the Human Understanding," 
which will be a lasting monument of English talent. In this essay, 
Locke is looked upon as a model of the greatest clearness and sim- 
plicity in philosophical writing; while Shaftesbury is pointed out as 
exhibiting philosophy dressed up with every possible ornament of 
language. Locke also wrote "Thoughts on Education," "Dis- 
courses on Government," "Letters on Toleration," and "Commen- 
taries on Saint Paul." Aiterbury, Bishop of Rochester, and Burnet, 
Bishop of Salisbury, we're both celebrated for mental talent. It is 
said of the former that he never attempted to show the beauty of 
holiness, till he had convinced his hearers of its benefit. Burnet 
wrote "A Vindication of the Church of Scotland," and "A History 
of the Reformation;" but he is most known for the " History of 
his Own Times." Aiterbury' s sermons meddled a little too much 
with politics. Indeed, both of these learned men were unfortunate 
in this respect, and, in consequence, lived many years in exile ; as 
also the witty, graceful, and fascinating Lord Bolingbroke. He 
wrote, while in France, "A Course of Letters on the Study and Use 
of History." When he returned to England, he became the patron 
of Pope and Swift, and other men of letters. Dr. Isaac Barrow 
was one of the fertile and abundant preachers of this epoch, whose 
sermons remain as examples of intense earnestness in the great 
cause of religion. Barrow is venerated also as the preceptor of our 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 169 

philosopher Newton; he published seven works on * Mathematics," 
but afterwards gave himself up exclusively to divinity. As an 
author, Sir Isaac Newton's scientific works form the base of his 
renown j but he is looked upon with veneration by every friend to 
Christianity, as its warm supporter, and as an earnest illustrator of 
the Holy Scriptures. His "Treatise on Ancient Chronology" is 
invaluable ; and his " Mathematical Principles of Natural Philoso- 
phy" was looked upon as the production of a celestial intelligence 
rather than of a man. Dr. Samuel Clarke, an able metaphysician, 
wrote a " Treatise on the Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity ;" Charles 
Leslie, " A Short and Easy Method with the Deists," which is still 
popular. William Whiston wrote "A Theory of the Earth;" he was 
eccentric and learned. Dr. Philip Doddridge was a copious expo- 
sitor of the Holy Scriptures. Dr. William Nicholson published 
" Historical Libraries of England and Scotland." Dr. Matthew 
Tindal wrote " Christianity as Old as the Creation." Dr. Bentley's 
answer to Collins' " Discourse on Free Thinking," is a noted work. 
He was the witty antagonist of the Honorable Charles Boyle, in 
the controversy concerning the originality of the epistles of Pha- 
laris. Bentley had many of the finest minds to contend with; at a 
later period of his life, he drew forth the censure of Dr. Conyers 
Middleton, another cotemporary, for accepting exorbitant fees as 
Regius Professor. Middleton wrote the "Life of Cicero." Dr. 
Jortin's sensible works belong to this period. Bishop Sherlock 
wrote his "Vindications of the Doctrine of the Holy Trinity." 
Whitelock wrote his "Memorial of English Affairs." Daniel Defoe 
wrote his admirable "Robinson Crusoe," and many other works. 
Bernard Mandeville wrote a clever satire called "The Bees;" and 
Andrew Fletcher, of Saltoun, wrote his able political discourses. 

It was now that British comedy made a bold and successful ad- 
vance. Farquhars " Constant Couple," "The Way to Win Him," 
•"The Recruiting Officer/' and "The Beaux Stratagem," all present 
admirable scenes of comic effect and sprightly dialogue. Congreves 
"Double Dealer," "The Old Bachelor," and "Love for Love," are 
still valued; and Sir John Vanbrugh's "Provoked Husband" is 
one of our most pleasing and most universal favorites, with " The 
Provoked Wife," and "The Relapse/' all replete with wit and ac- 
15 



170 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

tion. Gibber, too, fluttered among the strong-minded men of the 
day; gifted and gay, he was a successful actor of comedy, and a 
successful writer of more than one. "The Careless Husband" is 
the best, but "The Nonjuror" brought him most fame. It was an 
attack upon the Jacobites, and obtained for its author the honor of 
the laureate, although Pope, in his jealousy and bitter satire, could 
only make him the hero of " The Dunciad." It may be remarked 
that, in the series of English comic poets, Wyclierley, Gongreve, 
Farquhar, Vanbrugh, Steele, and Gibber, there is a gradation from 
unblushing indecency to tolerable modesty. Macklin, the actor, 
wrote the plays of "Love a.-la-Mode" and "The Man of the World." 
At the accession of Queen Anne, Dean Swift embarked in politics, 
hoping for preferment in England, but being disappointed, his tem- 
per was embittered, and his strong spirit of satire increased. In 
prose, Swift is distinguished for clearness and force ; his principal 
works are, "Gulliver's Travels," a most entertaining fiction and 
satire; an allegory, entitled "A Tale of a Tub;" various political 
tracts, with a variety of admirable essays and letters, which, for 
pungency and felicity of style, have never been surpassed. His 
value, however, as a moral writer is not great; for his wit was so 
licentious, that no subject, however sacred, and no character, how- 
ever amiable, could escape it. Lardner's " Credibility of the Gos- 
pel," Prideaux's " Connection of the Old and New Testaments," 
and Sherlock's "Discourse on Death," belong to this epoch. Dr. 
Potter's "Antiquities of Greece" excited the attention of the learned 
both at home and abroad. Berkeley's " Metaphysical Speculations" 
also excited much attention. Hunter, Black, Gavendisli, Maskeleyne, 
Play fair, and Hersclicl were all natural philosophers of this period. 
The very original Lord Karnes created a name, as philosopher and 
lawyer, of which the Scotch are justly proud. His "Essays on 
Criticism," "History of Man," "Hints on Education," "Introduc- 
tion to the Art of Thinking," are all productions of a man endowed 
with powerful and varied talent. His countryman, Allan Ramsay, 
was, at nearly the same time, a poet of no mean value. His pas- 
toral comedy of " The Gentle Shepherd" stands quite apart from 
the general style of European pastorals; it has no satyrs, nor fea- 
tureless simpletons, nor drowsy landscapes, but distinct characters 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 171 

and amusing incidents ; the author's verses have passed into pro- 
verbs, and continue to be the solace and delight of the peasantry 
whom he describes. Thomson is claimed by both nations; and all 
are equally anxious to praise his " Seasons/' "Castle of Indolence/' 
and poem of "Liberty/' but his tragedies of "Tancred and Sigis- 
niunda," "Agamemnon/' and " Sophonisba/' though containing 
eminent poetical beauties, have never been able to win much atten- 
tion; "Coriolanus" is much better liked. The unhappy Savage 
was so stung by the cruelty of his unnatural mother, that he per- 
petuated the disgrace of his birth in a poem of powerful energy 
and acute feeling. He was too sensitive not to be profoundly 
pitied; and, at the same time, his intellectual talents were of the 
first order. Shenstone's " Schoolmistress/' Akenside's " Pleasures 
of the Imagination/' and Warton's "History of Poetry/' carry us 
forward to the more popular poet Coiu-per, who forms a striking 
example of genius writing the history of its own secluded feelings, 
reflections, and enjoyments, in a shape so interesting as to engage 
the imagination like a work of fancy. He has invented no charac- 
ter in fable, or in the drama; but he has left a record of his own, 
which forms not only an object of deep sympathy, but a subject for 
the study of human nature. His poem called " The Task/' is en- 
shrined in the hearts of all English readers ; and his translation of 
"The Iliad" has obtained commendation of all learned men, from 
its closeness to the original. Collins and Gray are considered 
our two finest lyric poets. Collins' odes " On the Passions," " On 
Evening," "On the Poetical Character," and the "Dirge" in Cym- 
beline, are of the first class. Gray's Pindaric ode, "The Bard," 
his "Hymn to Adversity," with the "Elegy," are still among the 
choicest specimens of English poetry. Mason, the friend of both, 
was not equal to either in poetic talent; but his intellectual taste 
and erudition were remarkable, as may be seen from the notes to 
" Elfrida" and " Caractacus," two of his tragedies, and his "Art of 
Painting." Goldsmith was superior to all these three, and per- 
formed miracles of skill from pure happiness of nature. After 
Pope, he is the most flowing and elegant of our versifiers; his "Tra- 
veler" and "Deserted Village" will never die in our literature, and 
are so replete with beauties, that they are always cherished and 



172 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

ever new. His prose works are in no way inferior. The comedies 
of " The Good-natured Man," and " She Stoops to Conquer/'' are 
among our best. Goldsmith is one of the best painters after 
nature. Among these fine productions, we must not forget the 
charming novel of " The Vicar of Wakefield/' which is also from 
Goldsmith's magic pen. He is also valued as a historian, and wrote 
a most entertaining work, entitled "Animated Nature." 

We have now a long list of minor poets, whom it is only fair to 
mention, as each has some peculiar grace for which his name has 
lived. Glover's "Leonidas;" Blair's poem of "The. Grave;" 
Dyer's " Grongar Hill;" Hamilton's "Braes of Yarrow;" David 
Mallett's "William and Margaret," and the well-known "Edwin 
and Emma;" Tobias Smollett's " Ode to Independence;" Arm- 
strong's " Art of preserving Health ;" Mickles' " Cunmor Hall," and 
translation of Camoens' " Lusiad;" Dr. Thomas Percy's "Oh 
Nanny, wilt thou gang wi' me," and " The Friar of Orders Grey;" 
Robert Loyd's "Actor;" Churchill's "Hosciad;" Michael Bruce 's 
" Lochleven;" Logan's well-known lines " To the Cuckoo," which 
appear, however, to belong to Bruce; Thomas Warton's "Sonnets;" 
Joseph Warton's "Ode to Fancy;" Smart's "Song to David;" 
Robert Dodsley' s Poems; Lord Littleton' s "Monody;" Sir William 
Jones's Poems; those of Francis Faivkes; of William Whitehead; 
Grainger , Merrick, John Scott, William Oldys, John Cuningham, 
Christopher Anstey, Thomas Moss, Alexander Ross, John Lowe, 
John Skinner, Robert Crawford, Sir Gilbert Elliot; Robert Fer- 
gusson's " Cauler Water;" Lady Anne Barnard's "Auld Robin 
Gray," and Hammond's " Careless Content," all belong to the list 
of this period, though differing in slight degrees of worth. There 
was also Somerville, whose poem of "The Chase" deserves especial 
notice; Smith, Duke, King, Garth, Hughes, Blackmore, Fenton, 
Yalden, Philips, Stepney, Sprat, Savage, Tichell, Langhorne, and 
Pomfret, who are all noticed by Dr. Johnson in his "Lives of the 
Poets." The " Leonidas" of Glover is an epic of some merit. Nor 
must the devotional hymns of Dr. Lsaac Watts be forgotten, for they 
are deservedly popular; nor the plaintive tale of poor Falconer's 
" Shipwreck," predictive of his own. Macpherson's poems of Ossian 
excited the liveliest enthusiasm, and awakened endless discussion 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 173 

as to their originality. But there is one yet unnamed, whose claims 
to remembrance cannot be so easily set aside; they have been sanc- 
tioned by learning, hailed by genius, and hallowed by misfortune. 
This is Chatterton; yet it is not so much what he has done, as the 
age at which it was done, that excites our wonder. The facility of 
composition, the vigor and knowledge evinced by Chatterton are 
most extraordinary for the age of sixteen. His " Minstrel's Song," 
in the poem of " Ella," is considered the best specimen of his ta- 
lent. Scotland had her " Minstrel" also ; for Dr. Beattie's poem, 
so called, is highly valued. He was soon followed by the inimita- 
ble Bums, the brightest jewel in the Scottish coronet of intellect, 
and justly deserving the title of " The Favorite of Nature." His 
poems of " The Cotter's Saturday Night," in the serious vein, and 
" Tarn O'Shanter," in the comic, would alone perpetuate his name; 
but he has written so many beautiful songs in both descriptions, 
that every one may select his favorite. There is in them a fine 
natural eloquence, the effusion of a warm and honest heart, with an 
earnestness and directness of purpose which makes his sentiment the 
poetry of his poem, not the images or words in which it is clothed. 
Hartley's " Observations on Man," which is highly valued by meta- 
physicians; Butler's " Analogy of Revealed and Natural Religion," 
admirable for its reasoning; Gregory's " State of Man and other 
Animals," also his " Father's Legacy to a Daughter," appeared 
about this time. 

Richardson stands at the head of our novelists, and atones for the 
tedium of his numerous volumes by the traits of delicacy and nature 
which he so minutely paints. " Clarissa Harlowe" is drawn with 
such truth, that you follow the heroine with unwearied pleasure 
even through seven or eight large volumes, and weep in agony over 
her sorrows and her death. " Sir Charles Grandison" is less touch- 
ing, but scarcely less pleasing. Richai'dson's characters are rather 
such as we should wish them to be, than such as nature makes 
them. Fielding is a striking contrast, both in manner and matter ; 
he is coarse and terse, but true to nature, and leads his reader 
through the degradations of life to teach him to avoid them. " Jo- 
seph Andrews," " Tom Jones" (often called the first of English 
novels), and Cl Amelia," are eminent productions. Smollett had the 

15* 



174 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

same graphic talent, but with more wit and license. His novels 
were written in the following order : " Roderick Random/' " Pere- 
grine Pickle/ ' " Count Fathom/ ' " Sir Launcelot Greaves," and 
( J Humphrey Clinker." Sterne formed a style for himself, which 
was much imitated, hut is now deservedly looked upon as affected 
and exaggerated. Many passages in his " Tristram Shandy" and 
" Sentimental Journey" contain sentiments which would do honor 
to every mind; but the study of his works as a whole is by means 
advantageous to the young: they are, however, valued for their 
masterly sketches of character. Horace Walpole's tale of "The 
Castle of Otranto" was warmly admired; but he is more famed for 
his unrivaled " Letters," and for the agreeable court gossip of his 
" Reminiscences." Mackenzie's story, called ?? The Man of Feel- 
ing," was produced in 1771; and was quickly followed by his 
" Man of the World," and " Julia de Roubigne." Mrs. Sheridan's 
novel of " Sydney Biddulph" met with great admiration. Her 
husband, Thomas Sheridan, compiled a good Dictionary, and wrote 
the " Life of Swift." 

Lord Chester 'field 's name brings with it not only the memory of 
his own superior talents and acquirements, but that of a crowd of 
eminent men who lived around him. In the court of the Prince 
of Wales (father of Greorge III.) Chesterfield was one of the stars 
of intellect; he was the patron of many of our literary men, and 
liked the distinction; but his neglect of Johnson has cast a cloud 
over the author of "Letters of a Father to his Son," and proves 
him to have been far more benevolent in word than deed. Dr. 
Johnson was struggling with all the difficulties of life while he 
produced his herculean work of "A Dictionary of the English 
Language." "The Rambler" was an effort made by him to revive 
the periodical works before mentioned. "The Idler," a similar 
production, followed, and both contain much admirable morality, 
but the style is often inflated and verbose. Johnson's beautiful little 
romance of "Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia," is one of the classical 
gems of our literature. His "Lives of the Poets" was written in 
the author's seventy-second year, which may possibly account for 
the asperity which is frequently visible ; but it is also an astonishing 
production in every respect. Johnson has been styled the " Colossus 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 175 

of Literature." Co-temporary with him was David Hume, who 
was gaining distinction as a philosopher and historian. He was 
endowed with a sagacious mind and a cultivated taste, and his style 
is considered to possess the true Attic elegance; hut his philosophy, 
unfortunately, was of that chilling, ungrateful skepticism, which 
renders life a mere mechanism, and man worse than a brute. His 
"History of England" is frequently inaccurate in its statements and 
its dates; hut the depth and acuteness of its philosophical reflections, 
and the beauty of its style, have rendered it immortal. Smollett 
(whom we have mentioned as a novelist) continued Hume's " History 
of England," and, with a harsh style, is even more inaccurate. 
Hume's " Natural Religion" called forth Dr. Bectttie's (author of 
"The Minstrel") able work, "An Essay on the Nature and Immu- 
tability of Truth;" which was followed by "Evidences of Christ- 
ianity," and "Elements of Moral Science." Robertson, another 
Scottish writer of history, is distinguished for his clearness and 
grace of style. "The History of Charles V.," "History of Scot- 
land," "History of America," and "Historical Disquisition con- 
cerning India," all do honor to his pen. Fergusson, a fourth 
historian from the sister kingdom, has given an excellent work in 
his " History of the Roman Republic." Gibbon was already on 
the horizon of literature, but had not yet put forth all his strength; 
but at last, after twenty-three years of labor, he published his cele- 
brated "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," 
which has gained him immortal renown. Several useful, though 
minor, writers of history now follow. William Tytler opposed 
Robertson's views on Mary Queen of Scots, and wrote "An Inquiry," 
&c, upon this subject, which is considered weak and inconclusive. 
Bower wrote "A History of the Popes;" Dr. John Campbell wrote 
"A Military History of the Duke of Marlborough;" Guthrie was 
indefatigable, and wrote "A History of England," "History of 
Scotland," "A Geographical Grammar," &c. Goldsmith published, 
1763, a "History of England, in a Series of Letters from a Noble- 
man to his Son ;" admirable in every way. Lord Lyttleton wrote 
his "History of the Reign of Henry II." Dr. Robert Henry wrote 
a "History of Great Britain," down to the time of Henry VIII., 
which is much esteemed. Dr. Gilbert Stuart wrote a " History of 



176 BRITISH LITERATURE, r 

Scotland/' a "Dissertation on the British Constitution/' and a 
" History of the Reformation." " Histories of Ireland" were writ- 
ten by Dr. Warner (1763) and Dr. Leland (1773). Whittaher 
wrote a " History of Manchester/' showing considerable antiqua- 
rian research. Orme wrote a' "History of the British Transactions 
in India." Granger wrote a "Biographical History of England/' 
Macpherson, a " History of Great Britain from the Restoration to 
the Accession of the House of Hanover." Lord Hailes gave the 
" Annals of Scotland /' Watson, a " History of Philip II. /' Russell, 
a " History of Modern Europe." Blackstone's " Commentaries on 
the Laws of England" appeared; and Kennicott's Hebrew Bible. 
Wesley founded the Methodist Society. Ray, Flamsteed, Hcdley, 
and Bradley were all natural philosophers of this age. Ray's 
" Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of Creation" is much 
esteemed. 

Among the number of learned, intellectual, and witty men who 
frequented the house of Dr. Johnson, was Arthur Murphy, who, 
after having made a translation of Tacitus, wrote several good co- 
medies; as ? "The Way to Keep Him," and "All in the Wrong." 
Murphy also wrote the lives of Johnson, Fielding, and our great 
actor Garrich, who was himself author of several lively farces. 
The tragedy of the " Grecian Daughter" is also by Murphy, at this 
period. The rich vein of humor which is to be found in the middle 
classes of the English, had a representative in Samuel Foote, whose 
wit and talent for ridicule have procured for him the name of the 
British Aristophanes. In Footers very amusing three-act pieces 
there are a strength of character, a keenness of satire, and such 
sparklings of wit, that the reader forgives the negligence often ap- 
parent in the plot, and the incompleteness of the catastrophe. Dr. 
Hoadley's play of " The Suspicious Husband," and " The Heiress" 
of General Burgoyne, are highly esteemed; and, soon after them, 
the brilliant genius of Richard Brinsley Sheridan added immortal 
specimens of his power in comedy by " The Rivals" and " The 
School for Scandal." Colman, the elder, was another successful 
writer of comedy, as in " The Jealous Wife." Edward Moore's 
much-admired play of " The Gamester," Brooke s "Gustavus Vasa/' 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY." 177 

Dr. Brovm's "Barbarossa," and Home's "Douglas," belong to the 
same time. 

We must not omit the powerfully pathetic and patriotic poet 
Dihdin, whose naval songs have carried delight and sound morals 
to a class of men not easily touched by literature. 

Bishop Butler did honorable service in the higher branches of 
ethics, but it was not till after nearly a hundred and fifty years that 
a decided taste for metaphysics was visible. Dr. Francis Hutche- 
son published his "Inquiry into Beauty and Virtue/' about 1726; 
and followed it by another fine work, entitled " A System of Moral 
Philosophy/' The system of Idealism, of Berkeley, and the writ- 
ings of Hutcheson, produced Hume's " Treatise on Human Nature," 
which was followed by his " Inquiry concerning the Principles of 
Morals/' and " Dialogues on Natural Religion." Dr. Adam Smith 
succeeded Hutcheson as the professor of moral philosophy in Glas- 
gow, and wrote a "Theory of Moral Sentiment/' and, some years 
after, appeared his great work on political economy, entitled " An 
Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations," 
which has since made him be regarded as the founder of the science 
of political economy in England. In the mean while, Dr. ReicVs 
" Inquiry into the Human Mind" was published, and " Essays on 
the Intellectual Powers of Man." Lord Karnes had written his 
" Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion," and 
other works. Dr. Beattie's metaphysical works are named already. 
In England, Hartley's " Observations on Man, — his Frame, his Duty, 
and his Expectations," drew many admirers. Dr. Price wrote " A 
Review of the principal Questions and Difficulties in Morals." 
Abraham Tucker wrote a very pleasing work on " The Lights of 
Nature pursued." Dr. Priestley published a series of disquisitions 
on "Matter and Spirit/' but Priestley was more eminent as a na- 
tural philosopher than a metaphysician. 

The divines of this period wrote with great talent and consider- 
able sagacity. Bishop Warburton was brilliant and bold; his " Al- 
liance between Church and State," and the " Divine Legation of 
Moses," evince prodigious learning. Dr. Loioth wrote a " Life of 
Wykeham," and "Translation of Isaiah," which are highly esteemed, 
with other works. Dr. Conyers Middleton's " Life of Cicero" is 



178 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

already named ; he entered warmly into the controversies of the 
times. The Reverend William Law wrote the popular work " A 
Serious Call to a Holy Life." Dr. Watts wrote his elementary works 
on " Logic/' and " Improvement of the Mind;" with various other 
theological writings. Dr. Richard Hurd's u Introduction to the 
Study of the Prophecies;" Dr. Dome's " Commentary on the Book 
of Psalms;" Dr. Jo-rim's u Life of Erasmus/' are all esteemed 
works : the latter writer gave offence to the high-church party by 
the freedom of his remarks, as also Dr. John Jebb, in his theological 
writings. Bishop Newton's " Dissertations on the Bible," and Arch- 
bishop Seeker's " Lectures on the Catechism," have been of eminent 
service in sacred literature. 

The remarkable men, Whitfield and Wesley, both deserve mention 
here. The former was most eloquent as a preacher, but tame as a 
writer; the latter was more learned, and better fitted to be the 
leader of a sect. Wesley was indefatigable in preaching and in 
writing : his apostolic earnestness procured for him sincere and pro- 
found respect ; but though his writings are voluminous, none of 
them have gained a reputation beyond the circle of his own fol- 
lowers. 

The English dissenters now evinced considerable ardor in study. 
Nathaniel Lardner wrote various works of importance; his chief 
productions are " On the Credibility of the Gospel," and " A large 
Collection of Ancient Jewish and Heathen Testimonies to the 
Truths of the Christian Religion." Hugh Farmer wrote a " Disser- 
tation on Miracles," with close reasoning and profound thought. 
Dr. James Forster wrote "Discourses on National Religion and 
Social Virtue," with considerable eloquence. 

In the Scottish Church, there were Dr. Hugh Blair, already 
named, and Dr. George Campbell, whose " Philosophy of Rhetoric" 
is considered by many to be the best work on the subject in modem 
times since Aristotle. 

Among the miscellaneous writers, the name of Edmund Burhe 
stands honorably conspicuous. His " Vindication of Natural So- 
ciety," and soon after, his " Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin 
of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful," attracted great at- 
tention. His memorable " Reflections on the French Revolution," 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 179 

with his political " Letters," evince an amaziDg variety of know- 
ledge, power of imagery, and command of language. His friend, 
the great painter, Sir Joshua Reynolds, wrote excellent u Discourses 
on Painting." Between the years 1769 and 1771, a series of let- 
ters, signed Junius, appeared in the " Public Advertiser," and ex- 
cited the liveliest curiosity by their talent. These " Letters" are 
now become one of the standard works of our language. Opinions 
are divided on the question of their authorship; and many distin- 
guished names are associated with it; but the largest amount of 
circumstantial evidence points towards Sir Philip Francis. Wil- 
liam Melmoth's translation of u Pliny's Letters" is highly valued, 
also his own u Letters on Literary and Moral Subjects." 

William Harris wrote Historical Memoirs of James I., Charles 
L, Oliver Cromwell, and Charles II. James Hams (father of the 
first Lord Malmsbury) wrote treatises on Music and Painting, and 
a work called " Hermes; or, a Philosophical Inquiry concerning 
Universal Grammar," which is considered one of the most beautiful 
pieces of analysis since the days of Aristotle. William Stuhely 
published an " Account of the Antiquities and Curiosities of Great 
Britain." Edward King published " Observations on Ancient 
Castles." Soame Jenyns wrote "A Free Inquiry into the Na- 
ture of Evil." Lord Monboddo wrote a singular " Essay on the 
Origin and Progress of Language;" and Home Toohe wrote his 
far-famed philological work, called the " Diversions of Purley." 

The " Cyclopedia" of Ephvaim Chambers, the first dictionary 
of general knowledge known in England, was published in 1728. 
The first magazine was the " Gentleman's Magazine," published 
in 1731. The "Literary Magazine" began in 1735. "The 
Scot's Magazine" began in 1739. " The Monthly Review" was 
the first periodical work of criticism, and was commenced in 1749. 
"The Critical Review" was established in 1756: "The British 
Critic" in 1793. " The Annual Register" began in 175S, under 
the conduct of Robert Dodsley. 

The nineteenth century was ushered in by a senate of the most 
brilliant intellectual power ever exhibited at one time. Pitt, Fox, 
Burke, Sheridan, Wyndham, Whitbread, Ponsonby, Ourran^ Grat- 



180 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

tan, and Lord Ershine, shone resplendently, and many of these 
gifted men added liberally to the treasures of literature. 

The poetry of the commencement of this era was only feeble. 
William Hayley, the biographer of Cowper, wrote several unsuc- 
cessful tragedies : his best work is entitled " Triumphs of Temper." 
Dr. Darwin wrote his " Botanic Garden," and " Lives of the 
Plants." Mrs. Charlotte Smith has been noticed as a charming 
poetess by Sir Walter Scott, and her tale of the "Old Manor 
House" will always be a favorite among the numerous prose 
works which she also produced. Miss Blamire wrote excellent 
Scottish verse, as in " The Nabob/' " The Siller Crown," &c. 
Mrs. BarhaulcVs " Ode to Spring" is considered a happy imita- 
tion of Collins; but it is her "Hymns in Prose" which have 
constituted her most decidedly a favored votary of the Muses. 
Miss Seward's poetical novel of " Louisa" passed through several 
editions; yet it must be acknowledged that her early admirers 
had greatly exaggerated the merit of her productions. Mrs. John 
Hunter published an agreeable collection of Poems. Mrs. Ojjies 
Poems met with general admiration, as also her pleasing Tales. 
Mrs. Grant wrote some pleasing Poems and prose works, as 
" Letters from the Mountains," " Essays on the Superstition of 
the Highlanders." Mrs. Tighe's poetical powers were greater 
than any of the above; her poem of " Psyche" is considered as 
one of the best of the period. Robert Bloomfield is one of our 
most characteristic and faithful national poets; he wrote " The Far- 
mer's Boy," " Wild Flowers," &c. John Leydon was a distin- 
guished Oriental scholar as well as a poet. " Scenes of Infancy" 
is his best work. William Gifford was a poet, translator, and 
critic. " The Baviad" and " The Maaviad" are two of the most 
remarkable poems of this author; but his fame rests principally 
on his talent as a critic and annotator. In the hands of Gifford, 
the Quarterly Review became a powerful political and literary jour- 
nal. In the same years that Gifford edited the " Anti-Jacobin" 
weekly paper, George Canning frequently contributed poems of 
great wit and caustic satire, as "The Bovers," and "New Morality." 
"The Pursuits of Literature," by James Matthias, was another 
satirical poem of the same epoch. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 181 

Dr. Wblcot, a coarse but lively satirist, wrote under the name of 
Peter Pindar. Henri/ Kirke White was early distinguished for his 
poetic talents: his career was, however, but short, yet his name 
will ever be an ornament to our literature. Southey wrote a 
sketch of his life, and edited his " Remains;" a collection of very 
sweet poems. The Rev. James Graham wrote "The Sabbath," a 
poem of some merit; and others. The Rev. W. Lisle Bowles was the 
original encourager of Coleridge's poetic taste, and himself author 
of several good sonnets and other poems. Walter Savage Landor, 
although a writer of some agreeable verses, is best known as the 
talented author of "Imaginary Conversations of Literary Men and 
Statesmen." Edwin Atherstone is author of the poems entitled 
"The Last Days of Herculaneum" and "The Fall of Nineveh," 
both of which are remarkable for splendor of diction and copious- 
ness of description. Charles Lamb, a great and delightful essayist, 
was also a very sweet poet. He is best known as the author of the 
papers signed "Elia" in various magazines of the day. William 
Sotheby is known as an elegant and. accomplished scholar and trans- 
lator. Wieland's "Oberon," with the "G-eorgics" of Virgil, the 
"Iliad," and the "Odyssey," are each esteemed spirited and faithful 
translations. His original poems are " Saul" and " Constance of 
Castille," with others of less note. The poetry of Leivis is of that 
style which easily draws attention, but deserves no very distinguished 
place in literature ; his " Durandarte and Belerma" and " Alonzo 
the Brave" are universally known. 

Several of our poets at this epoch delighted in the description of 
natural scenery; and obtained the name of "Lakists," from their 
love of the beauties about the lakes of Cumberland and Westmore- 
land. Among these, Wordsworth may be looked upon as having 
had an influence on his age of a more noble and purely intellectual 
character than any other writer; but, endeavoring to obtain a great 
simplicity of expression, Wordsworth sometimes repels the fastidious 
by his affectation, although the sanctity of his mind invests with a 
certain religious grandeur the commonest words and the most fami- 
liar thoughts. "The Excursion" is a poem tediously prolonged, but 
contains admirable descriptions and truly poetical ideas. Southey's 
" Roderick," "Joan of Arc," " Curse of Kehama," and "Thalaba," 
16 



182 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

have numerous admirers; "Wat Tyler" perhaps not so many, 
though it is not without power. Coleridge was another of this 
school, with more originality and keener perceptions of the human 
heart. There is a simple strength in him which is admirable; his 
" Christabel," "Ancient Mariner," and "Sibylline Leaves," are 
rich in beauties. Among the latter, his "Ode on the Departing 
Year" has many exquisite lines. Coleridge's lyrical ballads laid 
the foundation of a new school of poetry. As a translator of Ger- 
man works, he is also greatly esteemed, as in "Wallenstein." 
Coleridge's conversation was the most dazzling in extent and va- 
riety, and in brilliance of language, that ever was listened to. 
Campbell was less productive, but far more popular; his "Pleasures 
of Hope," and " Gertrude of Wyoming," are in every one's library, 
and every one's heart. Many of his minor poems are standard 
favorites with the people ; for instance, "The Mariners of England," 
"The Soldier's Dream," &c, and are full of fine sentiments and 
true poetry. His prose works also are numerous. Crabhe has 
been well named the Teniers of poetry ; his muse had a taste similar 
to that of the painter, and an equal truth. " The Parish Eegister," 
"Tales in Verse," and "Tales of the Hall," are his chief works. 
Moore's "Irish Melodies" showed a depth of feeling and a fund of 
imagination which could not easily be exhausted; and his prolific 
muse continued for many years to enliven and delight the lovers of 
the graceful and the tender. His "Lalla Eookh" and "Loves of 
the Angels" find enthusiastic admirers. Moore's prose works have 
given him a steady hold of the public approbation; and his impar- 
tial Lives of Byron and Sheridan, with his powerful sketch of 
"Captain Rock," "History of Ireland," and charming "Epicurean," 
are all highly valued. Rogers took a more serious line ; and, in 
his " Human Life," " Pleasures of Memory," and other poems, 
gave to the world a picture of his kind and noble heart; while his 
" Sketches of Italy" point out the man of refined taste and exquisite 
sensibility. Scott attracted all young hearts by his tales of grace- 
ful chivalry, "The Lady of the Lake," "Marmion," "Lay of the 
Last Minstrel," &c. &c. ; but he was preparing greater pleasures for 
his admirers; and the branch of imagination which had been exclu- 
sively in the hands of a few accomplished women, was suddenly 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 183 

seized by the great Wizard of the North, as the author of "Waver- 
ley." However excellent the romances of these ladies, there were a 
truth and vigor in his painting which for many years gathered to 
itself alone universal and enthusiastic admiration. During seven- 
teen years successively, Walter Scott poured forth the abundance 
of his rich mind and fancy; and in himself sufficed for the demand 
of imaginative writings to the whole reading world. At length, 
even royalty could not restrain its admiration by simple expression ; 
and the successful author was created a baronet, as a slight distinc- 
tion for such mental prowess and varied accomplishments. While 
Sir Walter Scott was thus turning to account the objective side of 
poesy, another poet had taken the subjective; Lord Byron reveled 
in those invisible regions where the poet walks alone with himself, 
turns inward to his own heart, dissects it, and reproduces it every- 
where. Byron embodied the sentiment of his times in that expres- 
sion of satiety and discontent which is found in the first two cantos 
of "Childe Harold," interspersed with bursts of the purest and 
noblest poetry. His Eastern Tales satisfied, again, the taste of the 
age for adventure and wild incident ; men having been for many 
years habituated to watch the progress of a portentous war, and the 
meteoric career of Napoleon. His second and third cantos of 
"Childe Harold" followed, and placed their author at the very pin- 
nacle of poetic fame. Of Byron's tragedies, " Sardanapalus" is the 
most interesting, "Manfred" the most poetical, and "Cain" the 
most powerful. The want of proper direction in youth made 
Byron's whole existence a perpetual war between the animal and 
the spiritual being ; there is, however, in his poetry, such an eternal 
spring of fresh-blowing images, such a perpetual stream of quick- 
coming fancies, called into existence by the sudden flash of his 
glowing thoughts and overwhelming emotions, that, whatever may 
have been his faults as a man, we may do reverence to his genius, 
with the full conviction that it is not for this generation "to look 
upon his like again." Though Byron's splendor as a poet put out 
all lesser lights, there was one which shone near him, and was, un- 
happily, too soon extinguished; this was the brilliant and powerful, 
but somewhat perverted, mind of Shelley. Shelley was intellectual 
and unworldly; the spiritual guide of all who forsake the past and 



184 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

present, and, with lofty hope and hold philanthropy, rush forward 
into the future. Wordsworth had been considered the spiritualizer 
of the opposite minds ; those who cling to the past, and things that 
are. Both these poets are representatives of a class of thought of a 
more ennobling nature than that awakened by Scott and Byron, 
who represent only the philosophy resulting from the passions 
and actions of life. Wordsworth and Shelley were of a higher in- 
tellectual order, and have awakened profounder and more unworldly 
thought. Many fine selections may be made from Shelley's poems 
which do not touch on his crude philosophical opinions. His 
grandest composition is the tragedy of " The Cenci," which is also 
considered the best we have had since Otway. 

But the talent of our British writers has been, for a considerable 
time, turned into the channel of writing articles for the Reviews, 
rather than in forming complete works for future generations. Pe- 
riodical publications have presented an easy opportunity of express- 
ing thoughts and opinions; and it is in the journals that many of 
our recent and present men of letters have sought, and still seek, 
renown. It is here that we find the learning, argumentative power, 
and rare eloquence of Lord Brougham; the sparkling and sarcastic 
Jeffrey ; the incomparable humor and transparent logic of Sydney 
Smith; the rich and glowing criticism of Wilson; the nervous 
vigor and brilliant imagination of Macaulay. It is in periodicals 
that many of the most beautiful evidences of Southey's rich taste 
and antique stateliness of mind are to be sought; nay, even the 
greatest portion of the " Essays" which, now collected in a separate 
shape (as those of Lamb and Hazlitt), have become a permanent 
addition to our literature, first appeared, amidst a crowd of articles 
of fugitive interest, in journals of the day. The Edinburgh Review 
was the crown and apex of all the others, and from the time of its 
appearance may be traced the decline of our standard literature, 
though it is itself now a brilliant portion of the literature of the 
country. Its showy yet philosophical tone of criticism, the mystery 
attached to it, and the excellence of its compositions, soon made it 
an honor to be ranked among its contributors. Instead of writing 
volumes, authors began to write articles ; and thus talent, however 
great — taste, however exquisite— knowledge, however enlarged, 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 185 

were directed to fugitive purposes. The contributions of Lord Jef- 
frey, Sydney Smith, Macaulay, Sir James Mackintosh, &c. to the 
Edinburgh Review have been published in a collective form, and 
may be now said to form part of our standard literature. "We have, 
however, much to notice in our literary annals since this epoch; 
and, although they are deficient in works that were written " for all 
time," there are innumerable writings to be mentioned worthy our 
countrymen's well-established renown. The poets were not sought 
for as contributors to these all-imposing and important Reviews, 
save as occasional critics of their brother poets; and it would have 
been well had their pen been oftener employed in mercy. The 
young poets Kirhe White and Keats, whose talent merited other 
treatment, felt severely the bitter sarcasms of the earlier reviewers. 
Our spirited Byron, however, paid these critics in their own coin; 
and his " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers" in stinging lan- 
guage taught them not to expect perfection from imperfect beings. 
Keats' s poem of " Endymion" deserves especial notice. Leigh 
Hunt's "Rimini" was received with delight. Wilson's "Isle of 
Palms;" Milman's "Fall of Jerusalem;" Barry CornicalVs " Si- 
cilian Story;" Croly's "Angel of the World;" the Ballads of Allan 
Cunningham — all reflect honor on their authors and their country. 
Ileraud chose profounder themes; and, in his "Judgment of the 
Flood," and " The Descent into Hell," has shown great strength 
and power both of mind and language. He stands out from among 
our living poets as a man of deep meditation, extraordinary feeling, 
and possessing a very uncommon skill in the use of language and 
rhythm. Dr. Heber's " Palestine" is considered the best prize poem 
the University of Oxford has produced. The " Hymns" of this 
excellent prelate are peculiarly touching and impressive. Charles 
Wolfe was the author of some admirable lines descriptive of " The 
Burial of Sir John Moore." Robert Pollok's poem of " The 
Course of Time" has gone through many editions. James Mont- 
gomery's chief poems are " The Wanderer of Switzerland," and 
" The Pelican Island :" a tone of generous and enlightened mo- 
rality pervades all his writings. The Honorable William Robert 
Spencer has left a small volume of graceful verses. John Clare 
was another of the native poets of our country, whose humble life, 

16* 



186 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

amidst rural habits, has found true inspiration from the love of 
nature. Horace Smith and James Smith were first known as the 
witty authors of " The Rejected Addresses/' and long continued 
to he renowned for their lively productions in minor poems, as also 
for novels. Thomas Pringle evinced marked talent and good taste. 
William Knox and Bernard Barton wrote some pleasing minor 
poems. The Reverend Robert Montgomery's " Omnipresence of 
the Deity/' and other poems, have many admirers. The Ho- 
norable and Reverend William Herbert translated poems from the 
Norse, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. Ebenezer Elliott, the 
" Corn Law Rhymer/' attracted much attention hy his force and 
truth, although he is harsh in phraseology. Thomas Hood is chiefly 
known as a comic poet; his reputation for wit gives him a place 
next to Foote in our literature. Alfred Tennyson is distinguished 
for his luxuriant fancy and originality of thought. Macaiday's 
"War of the League" and "Lays of Ancient Rome" much 
pleased those who had long admired his prose writing. Haynes 
Bayly has written many successful lyrics, and stands next to Moore 
in this excellence. Hartley Coleridge published a volume of poems 
not unworthy his descent : his sonnets are peculiarly admired. Many 
fine specimens of decided poetical talent have adorned our various 
periodicals; but, as is usually the case after a distinguished era, we 
have no one conspicuous poet of the present day. 

The ladies of England have contributed not a little, in these 
later years, to our poetical literature. Mrs. Hemans has left some 
of the sweetest lyrics in our language; touching and beautiful, both 
in sentiment and expression. Her largest works are " The Forest 
Sanctuary," " The Records of Woman," and a tragedy entitled 

The Vespers of Palermo." Miss Landon, so long known and 
welcomed as the musical and passionate writer, L. E. L., is another 
conspicuous female poet of the age; her largest poems are "The 
Improvisatrice" and " The Golden Violet." Joanna Baillie is 
especially distinguished for her tragic power; her "Dramas on the 
Passions" and the tragedy of " Montfort" show very superior 
talent. Eliza Cook, Lady E. Worthy, Mrs. Henry Coleridge, Mrs. 
Brooke, Mrs. Howitt, Mrs. Southey, Honorable Mrs. Norton, Miss 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 187 

Barrett , Miss Frances Brown, all deserve honorable mention in this 
place. 

In this period, many translations from classic and foreign poets 
appeared. Camjs " Dante/' Mitchell's " Aristophanes/ ' Lord 
Strang ford's " Camoens," Bowring's " Specimens of Russian, 
Dutch, Spanish, Polish, Servian, and Hungarian Poetry," Loch- 
hart's " Spanish Ballads," Wiffin's Tasso's " Jerusalem Delivered," 
Sotheby's " Iliad," are among the principal translations. 

Several native Scottish poets have evinced no mean talent in fol- 
lowing the immortal Burns. Alexander Wilson, Sector Macniel, 
Robert Tannahill, Richard Gall, John Mayne, and Sir Alexander 
Bosiuell, have each left very spirited lyrics. James Hogg, the cele- 
brated Ettrick Shepherd, was the most imaginative of all the un- 
educated poets; indeed, there are few of any class who impress us 
with the idea of direct inspiration so much as Hogg. His largest 
work is " The Queen's Wake." William Tennant's poem of 
" Anster Fair," Motherwell's " Jennie Morrison," Robert Nicoll's 
" We are Brethren a'," Gilfillan's " Days o' Langsyne," Hislop's 
" Cameronian's Dream," and many other poems of equal merit, 
from these and numerous other pens, prove that the true spirit of 
poesy dwells willingly among our northern countrymen. 

In the Drama, we had, as tragic writers, Maturin, who wrote 
" Bertram," " Manuel," and others. Barry Cornwall gave us 
"Mirandola." Milman wrote " Fazio." Miss Mitford's "Rienzi" 
was successful, and was followed by the " Virginius" of Sheridan 
Knowles, and a long succession of dramas, which have given him 
the first place in this line of literature. Talfourd's " Ion" and 
" Athenian Captive," Bulwer's " Richelieu" and " The Lady of 
Lyons," Marston's " Patrician's Daughter," have added much to 
our theatrical stores, and brought bright renown to their authors. 
Taylor's "Philip van Artevelde" and " Edwin the Fair," Brown- 
ing's " Strafford," Leigh Hunt's " Legend of Florence," Wm. 
Smith's "Athelwold," Beddoe's "Bride's Tragedy," all contain 
admirable scenes, but have not been successful as stage tragedies. 

In comedy, George Colman the younger was eminently success- 
ful. " The Heir-at-Law," " The Poor Gentleman," "John Bull," 
"The Mountaineers," and innumerable other plays, attest the 



188 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

sparkling wit, gayety, and pathos of this talented writer. Mrs. 
Iiiclibald also produced a number of popular plays; " Such Things 
Are," "-Every One has his Fault," " Lovers' Tows," are among 
the best. Thomas Holcroft was the author of the admirable 
comedy "The Road to Ruin," and many others; he ranks among 
the first of our comic writers, and also wrote several novels. John 
Tobin's only successful piece was the " Honeymoon." 'Keefe 
shines as a witty, lively dramatist in short pieces ; as in " The 
Agreeable Surprise," " Wild Oats," " Modern Antiques," and 
many more. Frederick Reynolds has been a most prolific writer of 
comedies, and very successful; " The Dramatist," " The Will," 
" The Delinquent," attest his high comic powers and sparkling 
wit. Thos. Morton is another distinguished writer of comedies; 
" Speed the Plough," " The Way to get Married," " A Cure for 
the Heartache," " The School of Reform," are standard comedies 
on the stage. Cumberland's "West Indian," "The Wheel of 
Fortune," and " The Jew," are also among our best comedies. 
We have still much lively talent in the pieces of Poole, Planche, 
Jerrold, Buckstone, Bourcicault, &c. &c, but old English comedy is 
not known amongst our living authors. 

Our writers in prose fiction have been highly distinguished during 
the last fifty years. Miss Frances Burners " Evelina" was pub- 
lished in 1778, and was followed by " Cecilia," and, several years 
afterwards, by "Camilla" and "The Wanderer." The "Vathek" 
of Mr. Beckford excited great admiration, but was the only imagi- 
native work he produced. Cumberland's "Arundel" did not 
please. Holcroft' s " Hugh Trevor," "Anna St. Ives," and other 
novels, had but a short popularity. Bage's "Barham Downs" is 
the best of several very inferior novels. The " Canterbury Tales" 
of Harriet and Sophia Lee are standard volumes; "The Recess," 
by Sophia Lee, was another successful novel. "Zeluco," by Dr. 
John Moore, and " Mordaunt," were both favorably received. Mrs. 
Inchbald's " Simple Story" and " Nature and Art" gained de- 
served popularity. Mrs. Charlotte Smith's "Old English Manor 
House" is the best of several able novels. Mrs. Radcliffe has been 
styled the Salvator Rosa of English novelists; her "Mysteries of 
Udolpho" and "The Romance of the Forest" stand alone in this 






NINETEENTH CENTURY. 189 

class of writing. "The Monk/' by Matthew Gregory Lewis, was 
a successful imitation of Mrs. Radcliffe's manner. His " Bravo of 
Venice" had also great success in its day. Mrs. Opie's "Domestic 
Tales" have had a steady popularity, and have gone through many 
editions. Godwin's "Things as they Are, or the Adventures of 
Caleb Williams," excited extraordinary attention, as also his " St. 
Leon." Anna Maria Porter's "Don Sebastian" and "The Knights 
of St. John" are two of the best of her numerous novels. Her 
sister Jane wrote " Thaddeus of Warsaw," "The Scottish Chiefs," 
and " The Pastor's Fireside." Maria Edgeworth' s "Belinda" was 
the first of her numerous novels and tales. She is esteemed as one 
of our best painters of national manners. " Tales of Fashionable 
Life," " Popular Tales," "Patronage," " Harrington and Ormond," 
" Helen," and the numerous works for the young, from the pen of 
this accomplished lady, have been ever received with delight and 
admiration. Jane Austen's "Sense and Sensibility," "Pride and 
Prejudice," and several other good novels, are highly appreciated. 
Mrs. Brunton's " Self-Control" and " Discipline" are of superior 
merit. Elizaheth Hamilton wrote " The Cottagers of Glenburnie," 
and various other works of estimation. Mrs. Hannah More used 
fiction only as a means of religious instruction. Her " Coelebs in 
Search of a Wife" went through ten editions in one year. Mrs. 
More's works form eleven octavo volumes, and she ranks as a dis- 
tinguished moral writer, although her latter writings were too 
gloomy for general utility. Sidney Owenson (Lady Morgan) has 
shone in various departments of our literature. Her first novel, 
" The Wild Irish Girl," is still read with delight. " The Novice 
of St. Dominick," " O'Donnel," " Florence Macarthy," and other 
national tales, evince a powerful mind and accurate judgment. 
Lady Morgan's other works are numerous, and deservedly esteemed. 
The Rev. C. Maturin imitated the gloom of Lewis in "Fatal Pte- 
venge," and afterwards published a number of works of romantic 
fiction, as "The Milesian Chief," "Melmoth the Wanderer," and 
" The Albigenses." Mrs. Shelley's powerful novel of " Franken- 
stein" received immediate appreciation; her other works are highly 
creditable. " The Annals of the Parish," from John Gait, excited 
decided attention; and "The Ayrshire Legatees," and various other 



190 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

Scotch novels from the same pen, were equally admired. The 
" Anastasius" of Thos. Hope is one of the most original of modern 
romances, and met with well-merited approval. John Gibson Lockhart 
has produced " Valerius/' " Adam Blair/' " Reginald' Dalton," &c. 
Professor Wilson's "Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life/' "Trials 
of Margaret Lyndsay," and other novels, have added to his renown. 
Miss Ferrier's " Inheritance" and " Marriage" show great know- 
ledge of human nature : she is the Miss Edgeworth of Scotland. 
James Morier has written some clever eastern tales, as " The Ad- 
ventures of Hadji Baba," ". Zohrab the Hostage," " The Mirza." 
James Bailie Fraser has also described eastern life and manners, 
as in " The Kuzzilbash," " The Persian Adventurer," and others. 
Theodore Hook stands among the first of our fashionable novelists; 
his " Sayings and Doings," " Jack Brag," " Precepts and Prac- 
tice," with many others, have been warmly received. Colley Grat- 
tan's "Highways and Byways" is a work of great merit; his more 
lengthy novels have not been so well received. T. H. Lister wrote 
"G-ranby," "Herbert Lacy," and "Arlington," with great success. 
Lady Caroline Lamb's " Grlenarvon" was remarked in its day, on 
account of the hero being supposed to be drawn from Byron. 
" Graham Hamilton" and " Ada Reis" are from the same pen. 
Lady Dacre wrote " Recollections of a Chaperon," and is the ac- 
credited author of " Trevelyan," an excellent novel. The Countess 
of Morley wrote " Dacre," " The Divorced," " Family Records," 
and others. Lady Charlotte Bury is the author of several novels 
of this class. Mr. Ward's " Tremaine" was considered clever, but 
heavy. " De Yere" is in a better style, and is deeply interesting, 
as containing a portrait of the regretted Right Hon. G-. Canning. 
Mr. B. Disraeli's first novel was " Vivian G-rey," which created 
much curiosity, and has been followed by various others of striking 
merit. Mrs. Trollope has been an active novelist as well as 
traveler, and succeeds in describing middle vulgar life admirably; 
but there is a mocking bitter spirit in most of her writings, which 
renders them little acceptable to many. Banim's " Tales of the 
O'Hara Family" are deservedly popular; as also the " Irish Stories" 
of Crofton, Croker, Griffin, Carleton, and Mrs. S. C. Hall: these 
writers evidently have their country's welfare warmly at heart. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 191 

Miss MlfforcVs " Scenes of Rural Life" are exquisite; "Our Vil- 
lage" has gained her the name of the prose Cowper of our lite- 
rature. Bulwer's "Pelharu," "The Disowned," "Devereux," 
" Paul Clifford," and " Eugene Aram," rapidly followed each other, 
and placed their author in the first rank of British novelists. Cap- 
tain Marry at is considered the best painter of sea characters since 
Smollett. "Peter Simple," " Midshipman Easy," and "Jacob Faith- 
ful," are among his best novels. Lady Blessington' s " Victims of 
Society," and other novels, show great knowledge of the world and 
the human heart; and there is, besides, scarcely a department of 
so-called light literature which she has not attempted with success. 
She was long the editor of the favorite annuals, the " Keepsake" 
and the " Book of Beauty." Mrs. Gore's novels depict fashionable 
life with great truth and piquancy. Miss Martineau is a powerful 
painter of humble life, and has labored energetically to ameliorate 
the lot of the poor. She is the first female writer in England who 
has taken a decided part in political compositions. Her " Illustra- 
tions of Political Economy," in a series of tales, evinced striking 
talent, which has since been fully maintained in numerous works. 
Miller's " Gideon Giles," Peacock's " Headlong Hall," Gleig's 
" Subaltern," with other novels from each, have severally met with 
their meed of praise; while James's " Richelieu," " Darnley," and 
" De TOrme," were the first of a succession of brilliant works of 
fiction. Maxwell's " Stories of Waterloo," and other works; Le- 
ver's "Confessions of Harry Lorrequer," and other Irish tales; 
Lover's "Legends and Stories of Ireland," and other novels; Mrs. 
Bray's "DeFoix," and others; Miss C. Sinclair's " Modern Ac- 
complishments" and " Modern Society;" Albert Smith's "Adven- 
tures of Mr. Ledbury;" Murray's "Prairie Bird;" the works of 
Lord Normanby, — are all among the superior class of recent novels. 
Ainsicorth has chosen a walk apart, and, in the dangerous portrait- 
ure of successful villany, has shown great talent, but no elevated 
taste. There yet remain to be named Warren, whose " Passages 
from the Diary of a Physician," "Ten Thousand a Year," and 
" Now and Then" form a landmark in the novel literature of Eng- 
land; Charles Dickens, whose "Pickwick Papers," "Nicholas 
Nickleby," " Martin Chuzzlewit," &c. &c. are full of wit, humor, 



192 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

and truth of description, and have always the tendency to benefit 
and exalt his fellow-creatures; Owner Bell, whose "Jane Eyre," 
faulty though it be in taste and construction, is full of power; and 
Thackeray, who, in his " Vanity Fair," and other works, has laid 
bare the vices that rankle in the bosom of society with a skill and 
delicacy of which we have had no example since the days of Field- 
ing. 

The Historians of this period are peculiar for depth of research 
and intrinsic value. Mitford's "History of Greece;" Gillies' s 
" History of Greece ;" Sharon Turner's " History of the Anglo- 
Saxons," &o. &c; Ooxe's "Sir Robert Walpole," "History of the 
House of Austria," with other historical works; Chalmers's "His- 
tory of the United Colonies," and "Caledonia;" are all works of 
distinguished merit. Roscoe's "Life of Lorenzo de Medici" and 
"Leo X. ;" Laing's "History of Scotland;" Pinherton's " History 
of Scotland;" Lingard's "History of England" and "Antiquities 
of the Anglo-Saxon Church ;" Palgrave's "Rise and Progress of the 
English Church;" Southey's " History of Brazil," and " History of 
the Peninsular War;" Dunlop's "Memoirs of Spain during the 
Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II.;" James Mill's " History of 
India ;" Charles Mills's " History of Chivalry ;" Godwin's " His- 
tory of the Commonwealth;" Brodie's "History of the British 
Empire, from the Accession of Charles I. to the Restoration;" 
Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," &c. ; Hallam's "Constitutional 
History of England," and other historical works ; Fraser Tytler's 
"History of Scotland;" O'Driscol's " History of Ireland ;" Napier's 
"History of the Peninsular War;" Alison's "History of Europe;" 
Lord Mahon's "History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to 
the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ;" Gutzlaff's " History of China;" St. 
John's " History of the Manners and Customs of Ancient G-reece;" 
Dunham's "History of Spain," and many others; Milman's "His- 
tory of Christianity;" Elphinstone' s " History of India;" Moore's 
"History of Ireland;" Emerson Tennent's "History of Modern 
G-reece;" Prescott's " History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella," and other historical works ; Burton's "History of the Christ- 
ian Church;" Arnold's "History of Rome;" Bishop Thirhvall's 
" History of Greece;" G rotes "History of Greece;" — are all works 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 193 

of decided eminence, and highly creditable to our literature. Sir 
Walter Scott 'wrote a compendious and popular "History of Scot- 
land," in Lardner's Cyclopasdia; Sir James Mackintosh did the 
same for "England," and wrote also a valuable Life of Sir Thomas 
More, in the same work. Macaiday's "History of England" (of 
which only two volumes have been published) promises to be the 
most brilliant historical work in our, or any other, language. To 
these we must add Miss Aikin's " Court and Times of Queen Eliza- 
beth;" and Miss Strickland's " Queens of England." Mrs. Jameson 
shines as one of our most graceful prose writers. Her "Loves of 
the Poets," " Characteristics of Women," and " The Poetry of Sa- 
cred and Legendary Art," bear the stamp of fine taste and deep 
feeling. 

We have individual specimens of decided talent in Biography. 
Mason's "Life of Gray" was considered an improvement on former 
biographies. Bosivell's " Life of Dr. Johnson" is even more popu- 
lar than any of the writings of Dr. Johnson himself. These were 
productions of an earlier period. Lord Holland's " Life and Writ- 
ings of Lope de Vega;" Southey's " Life of Nelson," and "Life of 
Wesley;" M'Crie's "Life of John Knox;" Moore's "Life of Rich- 
ard Brinsley Sheridan," "Notices of the Life of Byron," and "Me- 
moirs of the Life of Lord Edward Fitzgerald ;" Campbell's " Life 
of Mrs. Siddons;" Lord Dover's "Life of Frederick the Great;" 
Prior's "Lives of Burke and Goldsmith;" Miss Benger's "Queen 
of Bohemia;" Sir John Malcolm's "Life of Lord Clive;" Lister's 
"Life of Lord Clarendon;" Fraser Ty tier [s " Life of Sir Walter 
Raleigh;" Lord John Russell's "Life of Lord William Russell;" 
Lord Nugent' s " Memoirs of Hampden ;" Stewart's "Lives of Reid 
and Robertson;" Forster's "Statesmen of the Commonwealth;" 
Burton's "Life of Hume;" the lives of Curran, Grattan, and Sir 
James Mackintosh, by the sons of these respective gentlemen; Sir 
John Barrow's " Lives of Howe and Anson ;" Lord King's "Life 
of Locke;" Horace Twiss's " Life of Lord Eldon ;" Lord Campbell's 
"Lives of the Chancellors," — are all esteemed useful and in- 
teresting. 

It is observed that we have no original metaphysician of this 
period; but we have several fine commentators. Dugald Steicart 
17 



194 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

illustrated the views of his distinguished teacher, Dr. Reid; his 
" Philosophy of the Human Mind," "Philosophical Essays/' and 
other works, are highly valued. His successor, Dr. Thomas Brown, 
in the chair of moral philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, 
wrote "Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind/' which 
are highly popular. Sir James Mackintosh wrote a " Discourse on 
Ethical Philosophy." James Mill wrote an able "Analysis of the 
Phenomena of the Human Mind." Abercrombie wrote an "In- 
quiry into the Intellectual Powers." "A Treatise on the Forma- 
tion and Publication of Opinions," was written by Mr. Bayley; 
and Alison wrote an eloquent "Essay on the Nature and Princi- 
ples of Taste." None of these writers have, however, investigated 
mind as a portion of nature, or in connection with organization. 
Dr. Gall and his followers have adopted this mode of inquiry; 
among whom Mr. George Combe, of Edinburgh, is the chief, and 
author of a "System of Phrenology," "The Constitution of Man 
considered in relation to External Objects," &c. 

In Divinity, Dr. Foley holds the first place in this period : his 
" Moral and Political Philosophy," " View of the Evidences of 
Christianity," " Horse Paulinse," and " Natural Theology," are all 
works deservedly esteemed. Bishop Watson's " Apology for the 
Bible" was written in answer to Bailie's " Age of Reason," and 
was considered a vigorous and conclusive reply. Bishop Porteus 
wrote a variety of sermons and tracts connected with the discipline 
of the Church. Bishop Horsley's translations of the Psalms, dis- 
quisitions on the prophets Isaiah and Hosea, and Biblical Criticisms, 
are much esteemed. Mrs. Hannah Move's numerous religious works 
were generally valued. Gilbert Wakefield wrote a work on Christ- 
ian Evidence in reply to Paine. Wilberforce wrote his " Practical 
View of the Prevailing Religious System," &c. ; and labored assidu- 
ously for twenty years for the abolition of the slave trade. Dv. 
Samuel Paw was more celebrated as a scholar than as an author ; 
his Spital Sermon presented the singular anomaly of fifty-seven 
pages of text, with two hundred and twelve of notes. Dr. Maltby 
and Dr. Chalmers wrote on the Evidences of Christianity. The 
Rev. Sydney Smith, besides being a witty and acute critic, pub- 
lished a volume of sermons. Dr. Herbert Marsh wrote " Lectures 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 195 

on Divinity" and a " Comparative View of the Churches of Eng- 
land and Home." About 1833, appeared the first of the celebrated 
" Tracts for the Times/' by Members of the University of Oxford; 
among whom Dr. Pasey, Mr. Newman, Professor Sewell, &c. were 
conspicuous. Their principles have been set forth by various 
works : as 31r. Gladstone's " On the Relation of the Church to the 
State;" Mr. Christmas' s "Discipline of the Anglican Church;" 
and the works entitled "From Oxford to Rome," "Hawkstone," 
" Margaret Percival," &c. The Rev. Robert Hall was a distinguished 
ornament to the body of Dissenters : his "Apology for the Freedom 
of the Press" is eloquent and powerful; his " Reflections on War ; " 
and many admirable spirit-stirring sermons, attest his high talents 
and energy. The Rev. John Poster's " Essays" rank as one of the 
most original and valuable works of the age. Dr. Adam Clarke 
was a profound Oriental scholar; his "Commentary on the Bible" 
is a standard work. The Rev. Ed. Porster edited " The Arabian 
Nights," and left some well- written sermons. The Rev. Josiah 
Alport has written several admirable works in support of the 
Church of England. 

One of the most laborious and successful of our modern Miscel- 
laneous writers is Isaac Disraeli, author of "The Curiosities of 
Literature;" "Quarrels of Authors;" "Calamities of Authors;" 
and several other similar works. Sir Egerton Brydges wrote " Cen- 
sura Literaria," in ten volumes, and many other works. Joseph 
Ritson was unwearied in his efforts to illustrate British literature, 
and made several collections of "Ancient Songs," "Ancient Poems," 
&c. Francis Drake published " Illustrations of Shakspeare," &c. 
The Rev. William Gilpin wrote "Remarks on Forest Scenery." 
William Cobbett was a popular but inconsistent political writer, who 
wrote upon momentary impulse, and consequently produced nothing 
that will last; although many parts of his " Cottage Economy," 
" Rural Walks," and "Annual Register," deserve notice. Thomas 
de Qwincey wrote a remarkable work, entitled " The Confessions of 
an Opium Eater;" and contributed largely to the periodical litera- 
ture of the day. William Hazlitt was a miscellaneous writer of 
bold and vigorous tone of thinking; the "Table Talk" and " Cha- 
racters of Shakspeare's Plays" are among the best of his produc- 



196 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

tions. Thomas Carlyle is an original and subtle thinker; and, in 
his own peculiar style, one of the most powerful writers of the age. 
His " French Kevolution," " Hero Worship," " Past and Present," 
are among his varied and distinguished productions. William 
Howitt's "Book of the Seasons," " History of Priestcraft," and 
other works, have been generally well received. Isaac Taylor's 
" Natural History of Enthusiasm," and " Physical Theory of Ano- 
ther Life," show great earnestness in the cause of evangelical reli- 
gion. 

Jeremy Bentham was an eminent writer on Jurisprudence and 
Morals, and published various works which excited discussion 
among the leading characters of the day. His "Book of Fallacies" 
is a standard work. The Rev. T. Malthus wrote an "Essay on the 
Principle of Population, as it affects the Future Improvement of 
Society," and other works on Political Economy. David Ricardo 
wrote " Principles of Political Economy and Taxation," which is 
considered one of the most important treatises on this science. 
James Mill's " Essay on Government ;" Dr. Whateli/s " Thoughts 
on Secondary Punishment," "Elements of Logic," &c; Mrs. Mar- 
cel's " Conversations on Political Economy," and " Conversa- 
tions" on many other branches of science; Chalmers's work on 
" Political Economy in connection with the Moral Prospects of So- 
ciety;" M ' Culloch's "Principles of Political Economy;" Godwin's 
" Inquiry concerning the Power of Increase in the Number of Man- 
kind," and his " Inquiry concerning Political Justice and its Influ- 
ence on G-eneral Virtue and Happiness;" Sadler's " Law of Popu- 
lation;" Jones' e "Essay on the Distribution of Wealth;" Senior's 
" Lectures on Population;" and, though last not least, Mill's "Po- 
litical Economy" — are useful works which have received their due 
admiration. 

The Geographical Society published its first volume of memoirs 
in 1832. The Highland Society has produced excellent works. 
M' Culloch and Porter have made known the statistics of Great 
Britain; Sinclair those of Scotland; Newnham and Wakefield 
those of Ireland. 

But it is in Travels that our modern epoch peculiarly excels. 
Our relation with India produces annually many clever works. We 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 197 

have Elphinstone' s "Caboul," Pottinger's "Beludjistan," Raffles' 's 
"Java/' Skinner's "India/' as established favorites; and the late 
brilliant campaigns have already produced many delightful volumes 
for our instruction and amusement. Then we have the voyages of 
Parry, and Franklin, and Ross to the North Pole; of Beechey to 
the southern coast of Africa; of Hardy to Mexico; the travels of 
Laing and Everest into Norway and Sweden; of H D. Inglis to 
Spain, and many other countries; of MacFarlane to Constantinople; 
of Mignan into Chaldea; of Earle in New Zealand; of Game in 
Palestine; Keppel's "Expedition to Borneo;" Borrow' s "Bible in 
Spain" and "Gypsies of Spain;" Sir Francis Head's "Bubbles of 
the Brunnen," "The Emigrant," &c. Kinglahe in "Eothen," and 
Warhurton in "The Crescent and the Cross," have set forth the spirit 
of the East with master hands; and Layard, in his "Nineveh," has 
made the dry bones of an almost unknown period start into life. 
Besides these, Morier has supplied ample details of the Persians; 
and Ouselcy, Stuart, and, more recently, Mackay, of the United 
States. These form but a very trifling portion of the mass of intel- 
ligent travels published within the present century; but we cannot 
conclude this section without a word of warm eulogy on Murray's 
series of "Handbooks," which form in themselves a perfect library 
of geographical and historical information. 

The Sciences have been equally nourishing. Challis has studied 
the movements of the waves, in order to ascertain and fix their laws. 
The Royal Society has published excellent memoirs of their pursuits : 
the names of Herscliel (father and son), South, Bailey, Brewster, 
Galloway, Whewell, Airy, Adams, and Be Morgan, are of European 
reputation. The great name of Sir Humphry Davy stands at the 
head of Ghemistry; Play/air closely followed him; Kater has 
written on the Vibration of the Pendulum; Bolton and Tire on 
G-ases; Jones, Herschel, and Brewster on Light; Leslie on Heat; 
Wollaston has discovered new metals; Faraday has written on 
Electro-Galvanism, and is one of our first men of science; Owen, in 
Comparative Anatomy, is the Guvier of England; Prichard's ethno- 
graphic writings are unique in our literature. To these must be 
added the name of Mrs. Somerville, whose scientific writings have 

17* 



198 BRITISH LITERATURE. 

placed her on a level even with the most exalted men of science in 
the world. 

Geology has prospered under Buckland, Sir R. J. Murchison, 
Sir C. Lyell, Sir H Delabeche, Sedgwick, and others; Natural 
History under Jameson, Swainson, Kirby, Spence, Conybeare, Pen- 
nant, Richardson, Gray, Anderson, with numerous others. 

In Botany, Wallich has written on the Plants of Asia; Brown 
and Horsfield on those of Japan; Hooker on those of America; and 
Lindley has published various encyclopaedic works on this science. 

The " Medical Gazette/' the "Lancet/' the "British and Fo- 
reign Medical Review/' &c, have been brilliantly assisted by the 
talents of Astley Cooper, Baillie, Abernethy, Al>ercrombie, Armstrong, 
Copland, Gooch, Halford, Smith, Watson, Forbes, the brothers 
Sandioith, and a host of others. 

The Law Review, the Jurist, and the Law Magazine are periodi- 
cals ably supported. 

The contentions on Theological subjects have roused considerable 
ability on all sides. Ecclesiastical History has been cultivated with 
care, as in Vaughan's "Life of Wickliffe;" Todd's "Life of Cran- 
mer;" 3faitland's "Albigenses," "Essays on the Reformation in 
England/' and his "Dark Ages/' &c. &c. &c. The Parker Society 
has published many excellent works. 

The study of Eastern languages has been vigorously pursued. 
Colebrook and Wilson are European names; the "Sanscrit Diction- 
ary" of the latter is highly estimated. The Oriental Translation 
Fund distributes medals every year. The JElfric Society was 
formed in 1843 for the publication of Anglo-Saxon and other 
literary monuments tending to illustrate the early state of England ; 
and in connection with this subject the names of Sharon Turner, 
Bosioorth, Palgrave, Kemble, and Wright demand honorable men- 
tion. 

Besides the Edinburgh Review, there is a vast number of other 
periodical publications which have engaged no small portion of 
British talent. As this took the Whig character, there soon ap- 
peared a Tory Review of equal weight, viz. The Quarterly, which 
has ever since kept abreast of its rival in point of ability. Besides 
these so-called leading Reviews, there are various others, published 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 199 

quarterly, representing the opinions, political and religious, of dif- 
ferent classes of the community. The chief of these are the 
Westminster and Foreign Review, the English Review, the British 
Quarterly Review, the Christian Remembrancer, the North British 
Review, and the Dublin Review. Sir Richard Phillips long sup- 
ported the original Monthly Review; then we had Blackwood' 's ; 
and, as the reading public became annually larger, others, such as 
Fraser's, rapidly followed. The New Monthly, the Metropolitan, 
Ainsicorth's Magazine, Beniley's Miscellany, the Eclectic Review, 
the Dublin University, and Tait's Magazine, each displays both taste 
and industry in its contributors. The Literary Gazette and the 
Athenaeum are ably conducted, and cater very cleverly for those 
who have no leisure to read entire works. But we have yet to 
allude to the long list of valuable Encyclopaedias and other works 
which have put science and literature in the power of the humblest 
reader. To this class belong Rees's Cyclopaedia; the Encyclopaedia 
Metropolitana ; the Encyclopaedia Britannica ; the Edinburgh 
Encyclopaedia; Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia; the Penny Cyclo- 
paedia; the Library of Useful Knowledge ; the Library of Enter- 
taining Knowledge (the last three produced under the management, 
literary and mercantile, of Mr. Charles Knight); the Family 
Library ; Constable's Miscellany ; the Penny Magazine, the Family 
Magazine, Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, and various others; the 
five " Treasuries" of Mr. Maunder (in themselves a library of useful 
knowledge), and a series of dictionaries and encyclopaedias devoted 
to special subjects, of which M Culloch's " Dictionary of Commerce," 
Ure's " Dictionary of Arts," Loudon's u Encyclopaedias of Agricul- 
ture and Gardening," Gwilt's " Encyclopaedia of Architecture," and 
Brande's "Dictionary of Science, Literature, &c," form a part. 
Many of these are voluminous, and, being all compiled by men of 
acknowledged ability, have become standard library works. 



200 



BRITISH LITERATURE. 



COTEMPORARY WRITERS. 



Aird. 

Atherstone. 

Baillie (Joanna). 

Ballantine. 

Barrett (Elizabeth). 

Bayly (Haynes). 

Brooke (Mrs.). 

Brown (Frances). 

Browning. 

Campbell (Calder). 

Carrington. 

Cook (Eliza). 

Croly. 

Drury (Miss). 

Elliot. 

Gilfillan. 

Gray. 

Hervey. 

Her and. 

Howitt (Mary). 

Hunt (Leigh). 

Kennedy. 

Laidlaw. 



Mackay. 

Macaulay. 

Miller. 

Milman. 

Milnes. 

Montgomery (James). 

Montgomery (Robert). 

Moir ("Delta"). 

Moore. 

Nicholson. 

Norton (Honorable Mrs.). 

Proctor (Barry Cornwall). 

Rodger. 

Rogers. 

Swain. 

Tennant. 

Tennyson. 

Vedder. 

Watts (Alaric). 

Wilson. 

Wordsworth. 

Wortley (Lady Emily). 



DRAMATISTS. 



Baillie (Joanna). 

Beddoes. 

Bell (Robert). 

Bourcicault. 

Buckstone. 

Browning. 

Bulwer (Sir Edward Lytton). 

Heraud. 

Hunt (Leigh). 

Jerrold. 



Knowles (Sheridan). 

Mars ton. 

Mitford (Miss). 

Poole. 

Paine (Howard). 

Planche. 

Proctor (Barry Cornwall). 

Spicer. 

Taylor. 

Talfourd. 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



201 



HISTORIANS. 



Alison. 

Aikin (Miss). 

Burton. 

Brodie. 

Benger (Miss). 

Carlyle. 

Conybeare. 

Dunlop. 

Dunham. 

Elphinstone. 

Fellowes. 

Forster. 

Grote. 

Gutzlaff. 

Hallam. 

Kenible. 



Lingard. 
Macaulay. 
Mahon (Lord). 
Mill (James). 
Milman. 
Murphy. 
Napier. 
Prescott.* 
Palgrave (Sir F.). 
St. John. 

Strickland (Miss). 
Stebbing. 
Scott (Rev. J.). 
Tytler. 
Thirlwall. 
Thomson (Mrs.). 



NOVELISTS. 



Ainsworth. 

Banim. 

Bell (Currer). 

Bray (Mrs.). 

Blessington (Lady). 

Bury (Lady Charlotte). 

Buhver (Sir Edward Lytton).. 

Carleton. 

Colley. 

Cramer. 

Croker. 

Cosjoy. 

Dacre (Lady). 

Dickens. 

Disraeli. 

Edgeworth (Maria). 

Ferrier (Miss). 



Fraser. 

Gore (Mrs.). 

Grattan. 

Griffin. 

Hope. 

Hall (Mrs. C). 

Howard. 

James. 

Lever. 

Lockhart. 

Lover. 

Maxwell. 

Miller. 

Mitford (Miss). 

Morley (Countess of). 

Morgan (Lady). 

Morier. 



* An American; but liis works have become standards in English Litera- 
ture. 



202 



BRITISH LITERATURE. 



Murray (Honorable A.). 


Smith. 


Normanby (Lord). 


St. Ledger. 


Opie (Mrs.). 


Thackeray. 


Peacock. 


Warren. 


Shelley (Mrs.). 




MISCELLANEOUS WRITERS. 


Bell (Robert). 


Jessie. 


Brougham (Lord). 


Jeffrey (Lord). 


Buckingham. 


Kinglake. 


Brewster (Sir D.). 


Knight (Charles) 


Bingham. 


Laing. 


Borrow. 


Lanclor. 


Bowring. 


Layard. 


Barrone. 


Leake. 


Bulwer (Henry Lytton). 


Lockhart. 


Carlyle (Thomas). 


Loudon (Mrs.). 


Crichton. 


M'Diarmid. 


Carter. 


Martin. 


Costello (Miss). 


Mackay. 


Croly. 


Maunder. 


Cocks. 


Miller. 


Coxe. 


Nugent (Lord). 


Cartwright (Miss). 


Rhind. 


De Quincey. 


Russell (Lord J.) 


Drake. 


Sinclair (Miss). 


Ellis. 


Sheffield (Lord). 


Forbes. 


Spalding. 


Granville. 


Taylor (Isaac). 


Head. 


Wilson (Rae). 


Howitt. 


Warburton. 


Jerrold. 


Waterton. 


Jameson (Mrs.). 




SCIENTIFIC 


WRITERS. 


Adams. 


Black. 


Airy. 


Bostock. 


Arnott. 


Brande. 


Babbage. 


Brewster (Sir D.) 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



203 



Britton. 


M'Culloch. 


Browne (James). 


Marcet (Mrs.). 


Buekland. 


Mayo. 


Combe. 


Mill. 


Carpenter. 


Millingen. 


Croker (Rev. H.). 


Miller. 


Copland. 


Moir. 


Clarke (Sir J.). 


Murchison. 


Clerk (Samuel). 


Nichol. 


Conolly. 


Owen. 


Delabeche (Sir H.). 


Playfair. 


De Morgan. 


Pugin. 


Doig. 


Pritchard. 


Elliotson. 


Roget. 


Faraday. 


Robinson. 


Fletcher. 


Sedgwick. 


Farmer. 


Southwood Smith. 


Forbes. 


Smellie. 


Galloway. 


Somerville (Mrs.). 


Gwilt. 


South. 


Herschel (Sir J.). 


Spalding. 


Hooker. 


Spence. 


Jameson. 


Swainson. 


Kirby. 


Thomson (Thomas) 


Lardner. 


Tweedie. 


Lawrence. 


Ure. 


Lindley. 


Whewell. 


Lyell. 


Young. 



204 POLISH LITERATURE. 



THE LITERATURE OF POLAND. 

When, contemplating the map of Europe, my mind first formed 
the wish of rendering the intellectual powers of each country more 
generally known to the inhabitants of my own; a wish to create, 
as it were, a mental brotherhood among us; at the moment, I say, 
when fraternal feeling and cordiality of soul were reminding me of 
the common parentage of all human beings, the weeping Spirit of 
Poland seemed to stand before me, as if afraid to claim her part in 
the great family of the earth. She was but the ghost of former 
times: her name was gone; but "What's in a name? the rose by 
any other name would smell as sweet." And though shattered in 
form, yet is not Poland dead ; though nameless, yet is she not nerve- 
less; though without body, intangible as an empire, yet is her soul 
bright and glorious ! Not only do her actions and mental produc- 
tions of other days do honor to the intelligence of her children ; but 
now, now even in the days succeeding her triform death — days 
still of trial and deep suffering — yet does Poland raise her head 
with courage and dignity at home, and yet do her exiled sons abroad 
stand forth in every corner of the earth, as examples of deeply de- 
voted faith of principle, and highly cultivated powers; as examples 
of that beautiful spirit of nationality, forming at once a people's 
strength and glory, which never forgets the calm substantial bliss 
of home ! Years of difficulty, years of hope deferred, have passed 
over them in exile and in sorrow, yet do they look forward with the 
same warm hope for justice from their fellow men : yet is the 
energy of mind awake, yet is the independence of soul alive. 
Their years of probation are not wasted in vain regret; everywhere 
we see them seeking with earnest solicitude to be useful and honor- 
able members of society. Such a people could not be set aside in 
the project I had formed; and, once entered in the path, bright and 
abundant were the flowers which bloomed around me. Leaving 
then her sorrows, with the sentiment of justice encouraging the 



TENTH CENTURY. 205 

prayer of hope that Poland may one day have her name and rights 
restored, let us turn to her glories. 

As with all the people of the north, eivilization did not begin in 
reality in Poland till the introduction of Christianity. After arrest- 
ing the progress of the Russian arms, Mieczyslas I., Duke of Po- 
land, in 965, endeavored to awaken a taste for peace in his subjects. 
A marriage was projected with Donibrovka, a princess of Hungary, 
who consented to the match on the condition of the Duke Mieczys- 
las becoming a convert to Christianity. Great and unwearied as 
was the zeal of this lady for the protection of Christianity, her hus- 
band kept pace with her; but the political position of Poland ren- 
dered their task very difficult. Every neighboring country was 
jealously watching her; and on every side she was forced to repulse 
an enemy from her frontiers. It was this which placed the son of 
Mieczyslas in a career of perpetual warfare. Boleslas I., however, 
governed so wisely, and so bravely defended his country, that he 
obtained the admiration of all Europe ; and the dukedom of Poland 
was erected into a kingdom by the Emperor Otho III. It was in 
this reign that deeds of arms and chivalrie valor, and romances of 
love and martial glory, raised Poland so high in the enthusiasm of 
her people. At war with Silesia; at war with Bohemia; now flying 
to the north as far as Hobtein, then to the east against the princes 
of Russia, Boleslas I. struck terror and wonder into the hearts of 
all his opposers. 

But Boleslas had at length a profound sentiment of regret for the 
evils these wars occasioned; and he occupied the last six years of 
his reign in endeavoring, by the most assiduous toil, to repair the 
evils they had inflicted. Thus his memory became adored; and at 
this hour he is looked upon as the father of Poland's greatness, at 
once with affection and veneration. His successors followed much 
in the same career; and were constantly at war with the surround- 
ing countries; for Poland has bitterly felt the great disadvantage of 
having no national bulwarks, no ocean for her guardian, to ward off 
the encroachments of her neighbors. 

The clergy being, in the early ages, everywhere the depositaries 
of mental light, Mieczyslas and his successors engaged many of 
them to come from the west, and, among the rest, some monks of 
18 



206 POLISH LITERATURE. 

the order of St. Benedict. An emigrant Frenchman, named Mar- 
tinus Gallus, was one of the Polish chroniclers about 1135, and is 
the earliest certain writer. The clergy wrote only in Latin, and 
took no pains to acquire the language of their new country. In 
1285, at the diet of Lanezyca, it had been decreed that ecclesiastical 
dignities should only be conferred on the natives. This improve- 
ment and just patriotism gradually produced their effects on the peo- 
ple; and, in 1370, Casimir the Great had placed Poland in a posi- 
tion at once imposing and dignified. Religion flourished, and the 
king's power was both revered and respected. At this time, 
Poland was not behind the other nations of Europe, either in her 
protection of learned men, or in the taste for their writings. . 

The dawn of literature in most countries is usually marked by 
poetic compositions ; but if, under this appellation, are to be classed 
written productions alone, the inference must be, that at this period 
the Poles possessed no poet. Nothing can, however, be less true; 
the desire of fame naturally accompanied their warlike actions; and, 
when peace reigned among them, the old warriors themselves tried 
to excel each other in relating eloquently their feats of arms. Thus 
was formed a collection of living chronicles of the times, which 
might be fully depended upon; for these early bards were not 
youthful minstrels, like the troubadours, whose enthusiastic spirits 
veiled the truth in robes of imagery ; but they were grave nobles, 
who, in the assembly of their equals (candidates like themselves for 
the throne), recited at the banquet their own compositions. Even 
in the present times, a specimen of these ancient poets has been 
seen in Prince- Radzivil, whose compositions, though never printed, 
were on the lips of all his countrymen. When this nobleman, 
whom twelve thousand peasants acknowledged as their lord, was 
required to swear allegiance to Catherine of Russia, he told her 
ambassador that he would rather make the empress a gift of his 
wide domains for pin-money, and recite his marvellous tales with 
the gravity of a palatine ; — an incident which may furnish an idea 
of what oral poets were at the period of which we are speaking. 
Indeed, the spirit of poetry pervades the whole social frame of Po- 
land, and its legends are a cherished standard of national feeling, 
which is undying among them. The best authors have sought in- 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 207 

Bpiration from these traditions, and several collections have heen 
made, to which attention has been powerfully called in modern 
times by the poet Micldcidc::. 

Casimir the Great has been named the King of Peasants, because 
he protected, in preference, the laboring classes ; but it was he who 
founded the University of Cracow, with an equal desire for the pro- 
gression of the superior classes. His reign was illustrated by the 
first code of laws, known by the name of " Statute of Wislica." A 
part of these laws is written in the Polish language, which already 
presented the characters of a settled tongue. Hedwiga, the grand- 
daughter of Casimir the Great, got many portions of the Bible 
translated into the Polish tongue — the first monument of literature 
from the University. This princess tried to introduce the use of the 
Polish tongue also into the offices of the church ; which would seem 
so bold an innovation by a queen renowned for piety, as hardly to 
be credible, were it not attested by the fact, given by several Polish 
historians, that the native tongue was actually adopted partially by 
the Romanist congregations, and generally by those of the Greek 
persuasion. Hedwiga had married Ladislas Jagellon, who united 
Lithuania to Poland, and his son greatly contributed to the rapid 
progress of the Polish language j indeed, at the Council of Trent, it 
was openly proposed for the church service, and even for mass itself. 
For these efforts to obtain a rational and national church service, we 
may in some degree account, from the fact that the Bohemians who 
accompanied Anne, the queen of our Richard Lion-heart, were more 
numerous than is usually believed. Of these foreigners, many 
studied at our universities; and others, unconnected with the queen's 
household, were prevailed upon, by her influence, to leave their 
native plains for the banks of the Cam or the Isis. Jerome, the 
disciple of the celebrated John Huss, was probably one of them. 
While in England, they had deeply imbibed many of WickliflVs 
opinions, and, returning to their native land, they found there that 
the spirit of the Christians of the Greek Church was ready to receive 
all the principles they had themselves so warmly adopted. These 
doctrines spread rapidly in Poland, because the Polish youths re- 
sorted to the universities of Prague as well as Cracow; and from 
the very first both Huss and Jerome had a strong party among the 



208 POLISH LITERATURE. 

Polish nobles. With the reformers appeared the light of literature, 
but their hooks were frequently seized. Mafhew Glialewa, Arch- 
bishop of Cracow, is celebrated as an historian of the twelfth century. 
A work of his, entitled "The Art of Meeting Death," was one of 
the first printed at Haerlem in 1440. Kadlubek was a remarkable 
character of the early years of the thirteenth century; his life was 
published by Ossalinski in 1819. Bogufal and Basko were both 
chroniclers of the middle of the same century. Strzembeski was of 
the same age^ and is usually called Martinus Pohnus. OpalinsM, 
or John of Kempa, is the most ancient Latin poet of Poland, and 
flourished at the beginning of the fourteenth century. The learned 
Vitellio lived at the same time. Swi7iJca, secretary of Ladislas 
Jagellon, was the author of a poem on Casimir II. Oioleh wrote 
satires. Dzierha wrote history at the beginning of the fifteenth 
century; Rositius soon followed in the same line; and the historian 
Duglosz may be looked upon as closing this century. 

The first religious poem, "Boga Rodzica," composed in Bohemia 
by JSt. Adalberg, near the close of the tenth century, soon passed 
into the Polish tongue, and became the popular hymn of the coun- 
try, and was sung when the army went to battle. But the first 
original author who wrote in Polish was Ray of Naglovid. His 
prose writings are chiefly of a philosophical cast, and are eminently 
chaste in expression. He develops profound conceptions in a clear 
and graceful manner, as if he had taken Xenophon for his model. 
His poetical works are less happy, though sententious and epigram- 
matical. Prosperous in his circumstances, a favorite with King 
Sigismund Augustus, and so wealthy as to build two towns (a new 
position for a poet !), one of which bears his name, Roy was able to 
follow undisturbed the various impulses of his mind. At one time 
he translated the Psalms, at another he produced his "Models for 
Courtiers;" but his principal work is "The Mirror of an Honest 
Man," which may be considered as also that of the customs, ideas, 
and prejudices of his time. But we must give some account of the 
Polish Press. Many learned men support the idea that the cele- 
brated Dr. Faustus was the same person as a Polish student named 
Tvardovslri, who, persecuted on account of his knowledge, which 
was considered supernatural, is supposed to have taken refuge in 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 209 

Germany, and assumed the name of Faust, or Fust, which corre- 
sponds to the Polish word Tvarcly, and that he associated himself 
with Guttenberg, to establish the printing press at Mayence and at 
Strasburg. Whatever may be the truth relative to the flight of 
Tvardovski from Poland, it is certain that we may reckon many 
Polish names amongst the earliest printers in Europe. Adam of 
Poland was a printer at Naples in 1478 ; Shrzetusld directed a press 
at Vienna at the end of the fifteenth century, and two Polish brothers 
established one at Seville. John Hatter was the first printer in 
Cracow, about 1483 ; but the first book printed in the Polish lan- 
guage only appeared in 1506, when Albert of Laski, Chancellor of 
Poland, published a code of laws, known by the name of "The 
Statutes of Laski." 

It was about this period that Copernicus, the great astronomer, 
appeared. At the age of twenty-three, he went to Italy. He 
stayed some time at Bononia, for the sake of knowing the astrono- 
mer, Dominicus Maria. From thence he passed on to Rome, 
where he acquired great reputation, and was chosen professor of 
mathematics. After some years of constant success, he returned to 
his own country, and applied all his knowledge to correct the sys- 
tem of astronomy that prevailed; and when he was about thirty- 
five, he expounded the system of Pythagoras, as the most harmo- 
nious and correct. But he employed himself in making calculations, 
based upon a long examination of the various phenomena of nature; 
and, after twenty years thus spent, he brought his scheme to per- 
fection, and established the system of the universe which is now 
everywhere received. But the Roman Church, as a never-wearied 
enemy to light, considered his discoveries as a dangerous heresy, 
for which, like Galileo, Copernicus was thrown into prison by order 
of Pope Urban VIIL, and the unhappy but gifted being was not 
suffered to leave his dungeon till he had recanted his opinions. 
The discoveries of Copernicus are well described by Dr. Smith in 
his "Essays on Philosophical Subjects." 

Cotemporary with Ray, we find Korwin, who assumed the Latin 
name of Ncoforiensis, as suitable to his Latin poems; Krosnianin, 
who is distinguished for his "Art of Poetry;" Tanichi, who is 
honored with the title of the Polish Catullus; he traveled in Italy, 

18* 



210 POLISH LITERATURE. 

and was crowned by Pope Clement VII., but his best poems are in 
Latin. Szamotuski was a celebrated musician and poet of this 
period, and Sophia Olesnicka was the first poetess of the national 
literature of Poland. Strut was a follower of the medical profes- 
sion, and distinguished as a poet. Kosmincyzk was renowned as a 
poet, and was an ardent protector of letters. Stanislaus Pszonka 
was the founder of the celebrated satirical society called "The Re- 
public of Babin." Ruiz, of Spanish descent, was remarkable as a 
Latin poet. Padniewski was a poet, orator, and historian. Gre- 
gory Samborczyk was a distinguished poet. Bielski was a fine 
historian. Szarzenski and JakuhowsM were both good poets, while 
Trzecieski was at once a zealous reformer, historian, and poet. 
All these were men of decided talent, who shone among the friends 
and cotemporaries of Bay, and John Kochanoivski is called the prince 
of Polish poets ; he imitated Homer, and yet dared to be individu- 
ally great. Rich in natural feeling, he poured forth the effusions 
of his own heart in his contemplation of human life, and was con- 
demned by the critics of his day ; but his native wit procured him 
the title of " The Pindar of Poland," and his sayings are familiar 
to his countrymen even at this day. The general admiration felt 
for his genius and character suggested to Niemczywicz (a poet of 
great renown, only lately dead) the subject of a beautiful drama, 
in which he has idealized the life of John Kochanoivski. His 
chief works are three books of epigrams and three books of lyric 
poems, a translation of the third book of the Iliad, a translation of 
some of Horace's poems, a translation of the Psalms, a translation 
of Vida's "Chess," besides original satires and elegies. Two other 
poets of this name were known. Andrew, his brother, made an 
elegant translation of Virgil ; Peter, his nephew, made one of the 
" Jerusalem Delivered," and of the " Orlando" of Ariosto. At this 
period, the success which attended the eiforts of Martin Luther in 
Germany had great effect on Poland. Many Poles resorted to the 
University of Wittenberg, in consequence of the encouragement 
held out by the Elector of Saxony to all who should graduate in 
that already flourishing seat of learning. On their return, they 
naturally spread abroad the knowledge of Luther's doctrines, and 
numerous prose writers, Catholic and Protestant, belong to this 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 211 

period. Seklucyan translated the Bible; Birhoicshi wrote admira- 
ble sermons; Gornicshl, StarowolshC } and Orecliowsld all joined 
political feeling with their theological writings, which were of great 
merit. The labors of these learned men established the national 
language on a firm basis, and, although it may have since acquired 
more elegance, the energy, boldness, and freedom of its features are 
nowhere to be found so fully as in their compositions. Ovechousld 
(better known under his Latinized name Orechovius) displayed, in 
his disputes with the Romanists, all the eloquence of a Demos- 
thenes. He was a man of splendid talent, but of worldly, calcu- 
lating policy. He had not strength, however, to be faithful in his 
opposition : he was to be gained at any price, said Rome, and he 
sunk into her snares. Yet, on the whole, this apostate was useful. 
In his bright years of strength, he had fought for truth, and his 
arguments remained after his apostacy was forgotten. Cardinal 
Hosius, President of the Council of Trent, whom Bayle calls the 
greatest man that Poland ever produced, was one of the most pow- 
erful antagonists of Protestantism. The numerous works of Hosius 
have been translated into many languages. 

Sigismund I. was an earnest protector of letters; and, although 
a wise and great king, was tormented into a persecution of the Lu- 
therans by his queen, a daughter of Sforza, Duke of Milan, and 
one of the most mercenary of women. The contentions between 
the reformers and the adherents of the old religion were fierce in the 
extreme, and the fury of Sigismund against the Dantzickers is a point 
of history marked with peculiar interest. As a reformer, however, 
John Lashi enjoyed universal esteem, and the admiration professed 
for him by Melancthon and Erasmus bordered on enthusiasm. He 
was also the intimate friend of our Cranmer, who invited him to 
England, to assist in completing the reformation of the church. 
For a time, Lashi superintended the foreign Protestant congregation 
in London, which seems to have been instituted as an asylum for 
reformers who had been obliged to fly from their own countries. 

Intercourse between the literary characters of England and Po- 
land were at that time frequent; and an Englishman named Cox, 
who was Professor of Eloquence at the University of Cracow in 



212 POLISH LITERATURE. 

1527, was the first person in Poland who established a periodical 
work: it was called " The Ephemerides." 

The conclusion of the sixteenth century was distinguished by the 
clever prosaist, Kromer, who is styled the Livy of Poland. Chris- 
topher Warszewicki was an orator, historian, and diplomat of cele- 
brity ; Stanislaus, his brother, was remarkable for his literary talents 
and taste. Matthew Stryikowski was a celebrated chronicler and 
poet. Gornicki was remarkable as a historian. Negoszewski was 
crowned as a poet, and celebrated as a Latin improviser. In the 
month of February, 1598, at Venice, he delivered impromptu 
verses on the philosophy of Aristotle. He also published a Latin 
poem in honor of Zamoyski; and, at the same time, verses in He- 
brew, Greek, Latin, Spanish, Italian, and Polish. 

The death of a Frenchman named Statorius, a naturalized noble 
of Poland, marked the first year of the seventeenth century. Sta- 
torius had been a great friend to letters, and had made an excellent 
grammar of the Polish language. Solikoivski, the Archbishop of 
Leopol, flourished under King Stephen Battory, and is remarkable 
for his Latin compositions. Budny-Bieniacz was a celebrated pro- 
saist. Zamoyski, surnamed the Great, was a statesman, warrior, 
and protector of letters, sciences, and arts. Zeylitowski was re- 
markable for the great elegance of his poetry. Goslicki was a 
celebrated orator. Sebastian Klonowicz is called the Sarmatian 
Ovid. He wrote a poem in forty-four cantos, entitled " The Vic- 
tory of the G-ods," which the Jesuits destroyed wherever they met 
with it. Treter was a poet and engraver, although secretary to the 
kings Stephen Battory and Sigismund III. Rybinski was crowned 
as a poet. Paprocki was a good historian. Kinita was the first 
comic-heroic poet of Poland. Miaskowski was remarkable as a poet. 
Szymonoioicz was crowned as a poet, and named the Theocritus of 
Poland. Zimorowicz wrote graceful pastorals. 

Such sovereigns as the two Sigismunds and Stephen Battory, 
with ministers like Tomiclri, Tarnovski, and Zamoyski, could not 
fail of supporting with success the dignity and preponderance of the 
nation. As a proof of the activity of mind in this age, there were 
no less than fifty printing presses in Cracow alone, and eighty-three 
towns in Poland printed separately. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 213 

Various facts bear witness to the mental movement of this age. 
Two new academies were founded, at Wilna and Zamose ; and, be- 
sides being the golden age of Poland's literature, the Poles were 
distinguished by that highest test of civilization, liberty of con- 
science, when the rest of Europe was convulsed by religious wars. 
Leopol was then, and has been ever since, the residence of three 
archbishops — one of the Greek, another of the Roman, and a third 
of the Armenian persuasion; yet was there never any inquiry made 
to which of the cathedrals a citizen who complied with the regula- 
tions of government resorted. Political power was the reward of 
this tolerant spirit, and Polish princes sat on the thrones of Bohe- 
mia and Hungary; Lithuania, Livonia, and Courland formed a part 
of their empire; and even Russia offered her crown at one time to 
a Polish prince. Poland was thus one of the most considerable 
and most enlightened states of Europe, and would probably have 
remained so to the present day but for the withering influence of 
the Jesuits. In order to counteract the progress of the reformers, 
the Church of Rome sent into Poland many of the most learned of 
her Jesuits. The Jesuits arrogated the universal tuition of youth. 
Everywhere they were industrious, everywhere indefatigable in 
their scholastic duties ; for they had the artifice to render their gram- 
mars exceedingly difficult, and not only thus retained their pupils 
the longer, but completely blinded them. The language and litera- 
ture of Poland became a mere jargon of interlarded Latinisms; — 
she had lost both before the end of another century. 

From this general corruption of literary taste must be excepted 
the sermons of Skarga, remarkable for energy, boldness, and gran- 
deur of pulpit oratory. A cotemporary of his was Casimir Sarbi- 
evshi, who received the laureate crown from Pope Urban VIII. for 
his lyric poetry; but he was only a Latin poet, and an imitator. 
Horace was his model; and, though he writes cleverly, there is 
little, if anything, of originality in his ideas, or warmth in his feel- 
ings. Coleridge places him above Cowley. 

We must not forget the illustrious botanist, Zaluzianshi, who 
was the first to describe the fructification of plants, usually known 
by the name of the Linnrean system, and that long before Linnasus, 
to whom the discovery is ascribed. The Swedish botanist could 



214 POLISH LITERATURE. 

scarcely have been ignorant of the work of his predecessor, called 
"Methodus Herbaria/' which had been published at Prague; Dubois, 
in his literature of Poland, mentions this fact. 

Sigisinund III. protected the Jesuits, and his fanaticism retarded 
every mental effort; intrigues not only occupied, but soured, every 
mind. The persecutions of the dissidents in matters of religion, 
fomented by the then all-powerful Jesuits, caused numbers of en- 
lightened Poles to leave their country. Naymanowicz was a philo- 
sopher who endeavored to stem the torrent; and such was his love 
of literature, and efforts for its benefit, that he was sixteen times 
chosen Rector of the Academy of Cracow. Grochowshi was a fertile 
poet. The two PietrokoivczyTc, husband and wife, were warm friends 
to literature; the lady wrote graceful Latin poems. Ghelchowshi 
is remarkable for his good pastorals, at a time when there was little 
of worth. Cynerski's elegies are also above the ordinary class of 
poetry. Otfinow&ki translated Ovid into Polish verse. BrosM, or 
Broscius, was a distinguished mathematician, and a tolerable poet. 
Christopher and Lucas Opalinshi were both court poets. Samuel 
Tivardoivsld was a poet of remarkable fecundity. Pastorius wrote 
Latin verses, and was historiographer to Sigismund III. There 
was a little brightness in the reign of Ladislas IV. ; but, under 
Augustus I. and II. of Saxony, Poland seemed to sleep between 
acts of devotion and dissipation. During this darker age of litera- 
ture in Poland, very little poetry was published, except translations 
from the French poets. The brothers Lubomirshi, as philosophical 
writers, exhibit, however, pure and sound principles of morality. 
Unhappily for Poland, to the existing evil of a corrupted literature 
was now added the abolition of the liberty of the press. Sound 
notions of law and justice became, in consequence, still more 
obscured; anarchy pervaded the government; freedom degenerated 
into license; while the peasantry sunk into a condition bordering on 
slavery, and the limits of the country were contracted by the seces- 
sion of the Cossacks. 

Towards the conclusion of the seventeenth century, Andrew and 
Samuel Morsztyn translated from the French. Andrew was Trea- 
surer of Poland; he translated "The Cid." Samuel was Palatine 
of Mazovie; he translated several tragedies of Racine. Fredro was 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 215 

a philosopher, historian, and poet. Jacob Sohicsl-i, father of the 
celebrated King John, was ardently attached to letters, and used his 
pen with .skill. Gawinski was the author of some good pastorals. 
Under John Sobieski we find but few original writers. Chroscinski 
translated Lucan. Stanislaus Luhomirski translated from the Italian 
of Guarini. John Stanislaus Jablanowski put the " Adventures of 
Telemachus" into very respectable Polish verse. It was Mallchi 
who did the most essential service to his country, by writing a Polish 
grammar, and by making a Polish dictionary. 

No nation is more indebted to woman than the Polish. One 
female was the means of its conversion to Christianity; another 
rendered it powerful, by annexing it with Lithuania; and, at the 
unfortunate epoch where we are now arrived, another averted from 
it the greatest of all misfortunes, its moral ruin as a nation. More 
afflicted than all others at the melancholy aspect of affairs, the 
mother of the princes Augustus and Michael Czartoryski bound 
them by an oath to use every exertion to restore the former great- 
ness of Poland, over which the elder branch of her house, the 
Jagellon family, had exercised hereditary sway. Accordingly, they 
endeavored to introduce reform into the government of Augustus II., 
who had been forced, by secret machinations, on the throne of 
Poland, by the Russians; and when the Czartoryskis were frustrated, 
they worked out their views by remodeling the system of education. 
It was also a part of their plan to place a native prince at the head 
of the kingdom; and their nephew, Prince Poniatowski, was selected. 
Aided by the powerful Catherine of Russia, this prince became 
king, as Stanislaus Augustus IV., and was a zealous patron of let- 
ters. The royal residence was thronged with native talent; and the 
king himself assisted, as a private gentleman, at the weekly meet- 
ings of the literati. The nobles followed this example of encourage- 
ment, and their abodes were filled with men of letters and science, 
instead of a host of idle retainers. The two brothers Zalushi 
employed their whole fortune in collecting a library of two hundred 
thousand volumes, which they bestowed upon their country as a 
gift. Then arose Konarski, a man of uncommon genius and energy, 
who fearlessly attacked the Jesuits, and at length effected a reform 
in the national schools. The Order of Jesuits was abolished, and 



216 POLISH LITERATURE. 

their immense possessions consecrated to the public education. Ko- 
narski formed a compendium of national laws, in eight folio volumes ; 
and dedicated his ample fortune, and a pension granted him by 
Louis XV., as a testimony to his merit, to procuring translations of 
the best foreign works. Science, art, and industry nourished once 
more. Joseph Jablonowski was a warm encourager of letters. He 
published, at his own expense, the fine atlas of Rizzi Zanoni, and 
wrote various works in prose and verse. Elizabeth Druzbacka wrote 
some very fine idylls; they are full of the sweetest descriptions of 
nature, in which she is said to rival Thomson. The Princess 
Radzivil wrote tragedies. Rzewuski was an enthusiastic patriot, and 
distinguished himself by several literary productions. Bokomolec 
was a writer of comedies. One grand result of the all-pervading 
spirit of improvement was the constitution of the 3d of May, 1791; 
by which fine act, the nobles voluntarily despoiled themselves of 
their exclusive privileges, admitted the citizens into their rank, 
restored the rights of freedom to the peasants, and placed the new 
social order on a firm basis, by the establishment of hereditary 
monarchy. Not without reason, then, has our poet said, 

" Sarmatia fell, unwept, without a crime 1" 

Among the authors who flourished under Stanislaus Augustus 
was Janocki, who wrote literary history and biography. Wengierski, 
too, was busy with his lively verses and keen satires ; — at once the 
Anacreon and Peter Pindar of Poland. Then JVaruszeioicz first 
tried his powers in poetry and satirical writings, but finished his 
career as one of the finest historians of Poland. Wi/rwicz pub- 
lished many admirable works, and wrote geographical ones. Mina- 
sowicz was the author of some good poems and other vorks. Igna- 
tius Krasickij Archbishop of Grniezne, may be called the Polish 
Voltaire, wit being the principal characteristic of his numerous 
works ; but, while he ridiculed superstition, he never assailed reli- 
gion. In his " Monomachia," or War of Monks, he exposes, in a 
masterly manner, the bigoted absurdities of the monkish orders; 
then, in his " War between the Mice and the Cats," he ingeniously 
laughs at the dissensions that prevailed in the national councils. 
His fables are considered as only second to Lafontaine's, for the 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 217 

Poles say that the French fabulist lent his pencil to KrasicM. 
Tho>o fables are favorites throughout the kingdom. His " Epistles/' 
"Translations from Ossian," "Dictionary of Useful Knowledge/' 
"Imitation of Plutarch's Lives/' are all excellent; and, besides 
these, he wrote an epic, called " Chocun/' which bears considerable 
reputation. But Trembecski possessed the most poetic fire of this 
period. In his principal poem, called " Zofiowka," from a magnifi- 
cent country-seat in the Ukraine, he embodied, in fascinating lan- 
guage, opinions upon man's terrestrial and posthumous existence. 
Count de la Garde made a French translation of it, which he caused 
to be beautifully printed at Rome, together with the original. In 
his latter days, Trembecshi lost his memory to such an extent that 
he did not recollect he had ever written anything. He fell into a 
state of misanthropy, and would have no companion near him but 
a Cossack boy, with whom he played at chess, or listened to his 
songs. The only visitors he admitted were birds, which he per- 
mitted to build their nests in his apartments. Kniaznin was an 
elegant lyric poet of deep feeling; and, like Tasso, became en- 
amored of a lady far above his condition, which unlucky attach- 
ment ended in aberration of intellect; and the unhappy man died, 
as the poet sings, "worm-eaten of love." His patron, Prince 
Czartoryski, erected a splendid monument to his memory, at Pu- 
lawy. Kniaznin' s three dramatic poems, of "The Treble Mar- 
riage," " The Gypsies," and " The Spartan Mother," rank high for 
their lyrical beauty; and his odes are full of strength and harmony. 
KarpinsM was the best song- writer of this period, and his pure 
mind was eminently fitted for a translation of the Psalms. Kollon- 
tay was a philosophical writer, and conducted the paper called 
"The Polish Constitution." Pockzobol, the astronomer, friend of 
our Maskelyn, lived at this time. Ignatius Potocki was an excel- 
lent orator and great statesman ; and Prince Czartoryski, father of 
the late venerable prince, Adam, wrote a work entitled " Thoughts 
on Polish Authors," which deserves particular attention, as he was 
the first who combated the prevailing taste for French literature. 
SulkowsTcij although busy in a military life, wrote graceful poems. 

The admonition given by Rousseau to the Poles, that, if they 
could not help being swallowed by the Russians, they might at 
19 



218 POLISH LITERATURE. 

least prevent these latter from digesting them, appears to have 
been constantly acted upon by them, ever since the loss of their 
national independence — a misfortune which has only had the effect 
of still further arousing their moral energy. Having sung on the 
ruins of their country their emphatic " Poland is not lost while we 
live/' they created for themselves a Promethean existence — a moral 
power more enduring than that which they had lost. Their first 
act was to establish a Society of the Friends of Science and Belles 
Lettres, for the preservation of the national language, now endan- 
gered by the intrusion of foreign idioms. One member of the 
Society, Kojocynshi, composed an admirable grammar : another, 
Linde, compiled an excellent dictionary. Albertandi, the first 
President, left three thousand volumes of materials connected with 
the Polish history, which he had collected from various manuscripts 
whilst in Sweden and Italy, and which, having been prohibited 
making written extracts, he had retained solely by the force of his 
extraordinary memory. A far more important work still was that 
of Count Osselinshi, entitled " Historico-critical Notices of Polish 
Authors." He also devoted his fortune to the purchase of a large 
library, which he presented to the province of Gralicia. 

Nor were poets wanted to aid these efforts t Godebski wrote his 
" Patriotic Odes" and "Martial Poetry;" Felinski's "Barbara 
Radziwilowna" brought him undying honors. Count Thadeus 
Czacki helped the struggling patriots with his " Jurisprudence." 
Piramowicz was a critic as well as an author. Szymanowicz made 
an admirable translation into Polish verse of " The Temple of the 
Grnide," from Montesquieu. Nicolas Wolski was an astronomer, 
but found leisure moments to meddle with earthly concerns, and 
made a spirited translation of "The Marriage of Figaro." His 
brother Constantine preferred the serious path of Racine, and trans- 
lated the "Xphigenia;" also the "Zaire" and " Merope" of Vol- 
taire. Tanshi was a poet and prosaist of repute. ShrzetusM wrote 
history. Drozdowski wrote agreeable dramas; as also 3Ime. Lu- 
bienski. Naguczeivski translated from the Greek with great ability. 
Eysymont was learned in classic lore, and a poet. Sloivachi wrote 
some clever poems. Dembroioski translated the " Henriade." 
Bishop Stronowski aided the cause by his prose writings. Rai- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 219 

rsalc was patriotic in his heart and pen: his poems are 
written with a fire and energy that time cannot cool. MatuszeiL-i.cz 
was a fine orator and clever poet; his son Andrew, also, distin- 
guished himself at a later period. The services rendered to his 
country by the AbM Staszyc were very remarkable, as scientific 
author, poet, and philosopher. His " Life of the Great Statesman 
Zainoyski," an original poem "On the Human Race," transla- 
tions of Homer, and of Buffon's " Epochs of Nature," established 
his fame as an author of pre-eminent merit. The formation of Col- 
leges of Medicine and Law, at "Warsaw, and the erection of a fine 
building for the " Society of the Friends of Science," were acts of his 
private munificence. He purchased also a large domain, which he 
divided among a number of peasants, subject only to a very mode- 
rate rent, the funds of which were destined to the gradual acquisi- 
tion of neighboring lands for the same benevolent purpose. He 
was, in short, both liberal with his purse, and a warm friend to 
learning; and, whilst minister of state, Staszyc discharged the 
duties of that office with unwearied diligence, and was also director 
of the mines, and of a commission for the purposes of education. 
The name of this worthy man became an object of national venera- 
tion, but of hatred to the Grand Duke Constantine, who would not 
permit the people to show their gratitude by erecting a monument 
to his memory. His name is, however, engraven on the heart of 
every Pole, and his memory will be cherished as long as Polish 
blood shall flow in their veins. Count Stanislaus PotocJd continued 
the honorable patriotism of his noble family by his eloquence ; and, 
in his leisure moments, advanced the good taste of his countrymen 
by translating Winkelmann. Corn. MohJri translated the iEneid, 
and wrote some pleasing lyrics. Prince Adam Czartoryshi never 
knew an idle moment; and, besides writing some charming come- 
dies, was a universal aid to science and literature by his pen and 
his purse. Xavier Bohusz searched for Poland's honor in her his- 
tory and antiquities. MoclinasJci wrote with energy as a critic, and 
advocated that emancipation from the old style of composition 
which, in other countries, was called Eomanticism. It was just what 
was necessary for the awakening talents of his countrymen, — the 
chains of the classic style ill suited their ardor. Baudkte attended 



220 POLISH LITERATURE. 

to history only; while Bematoioicz interwove its dramatic facts with 
sentiment and romance in very elegant novels. His style and lan- 
guage in " Pojata" are looked upon as standard examples for those 
who aim at perfection. John Potocki was a writer of history and 
geography. Tymienski translated our poet Thomson. Wyhicki 
was an ardent patriot, and aided the cause with his pen. Gorczy- 
czewski was the author of clever satires, and translated those of 
Boileau. Zolkowski shone as a writer of dramas and satires. Clio- 
dani translated from Yoltaire. Zarblocki was a fine dramatist. 
SurowiecM was learned in classical writings, and famous as a statis- 
tician. Tomaszeivski was a distinguished epic poet. Groddek was 
a remarkable philologist. Stanislaus Boliusz was a clever historian. 
Malczeski is celebrated for the account of his journey in Switzer- 
land, and the ascent of Mont Blanc; he also wrote poems. 
• The literature of the present period is marked by the same pa- 
triotic character, and at the head of its poets was Niemcewicz, who 
only closed his mortal career a few years since, in exile. He had 
been distinguished under Stanislaus Augustus, and was the Nestor 
of Polish patriots. He had witnessed two great revolutions, and 
with his friend, the brave Kosciusko, had fought in America under 
Washington. His compositions in verse consist of tragedies, come- 
dies, satires, lyrics, songs, elegies, and fables; and in all these de- 
partments he has attained a well-deserved celebrity. His chief 
glory, however, consists in his " Historical Songs/' a composition 
quite peculiar to Poland; they are the history of his country in 
lyric verse, set to music, and illustrated with plates, in order to 
render the events more impressive to youthful minds. The book is 
in every Polish household, and venerated next to the Scriptures. 
His biographical sketches with which these lyrics are accompanied 
are, if possible, more valuable, and might be placed by the side of 
Plutarch's Lives. Niemcewicz has shown his diligence as a scholar 
in his u History of Sigismund HI./' which may vie with Schiller's 
" Thirty Years' War." He has also compiled three volumes of 
u Notices relative to the National History." His " Historical 
Novels" are amongst the most successful imitations of Scott; he 
translated Pope's " Rape of the Lock," the " Ode on St. Cecilia's 
Day," a Gray's Elegy," u Rasselas," and some poems of Words- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 221 

worth and Campbell, and various pieces from the French. In- 
deed, he continued to the last (to use his own words) to soothe the 
bitterness of exile by singing to his mournful lyre. 

The fame of Woronicz, late Archbishop of "Warsaw, first arose 
from his " Sermons." These seem to be immediate emanations 
from the purest source of morality, couched in fiery, almost dithy- 
rambic language, resembling that of the Hebrew prophets. In his 
poetry, he is said to resemble Milton very strongly. Brodzins7cij 
called the poet of the heart, formed his taste upon the extempo- 
raneous songs of the Cracovians, which he first brought into repute ; 
his poetry is characterized by simplicity and grace. One of his 
most animated poems is written on the subject of a great number 
of Poles having resolved, after the partition of Poland, to force their 
way, at every risk, to the South of Europe, in order to join the 
armies of Napoleon, to whom they looked as their destined deliverer. 
Many of them reached the French army, and were known under 
the name of the Polish Legion; they fought in the German wars, 
and distinguished themselves in Egypt and Spain. Dombrovski 
was their leader, and afterwards their historian, and bequeathed his 
writings to the Literary Society of Warsaw. 

Another poet, Francis Dmoclwioslri, although he left no original 
compositions, may be classed with the preceding in merit, as a most 
successful translator of Homer, Virgil, Milton, and Young. But 
such is the ardent pursuit of literature in Poland, that, within the 
last twenty years, no fewer than three complete versions of Homer, 
and five of Virgil, have appeared. The industrious PrzyhylsM per- 
formed the Herculean labor of translating Homer, Ovid, Virgil, 
Milton, Young, Ariosto, Camoens, and G-esner. 

During this period, the drama, which appears to have been more 
tardy in its growth than the other branches of Polish literature, 
reached a high degree of development. The tragedy of " Josephus 
Castus," by Simonowicz, is considered very superior. Zablochi 
wrote some good comedies; but "The Nuncio" of Niemciwicz bears 
the palm. Boguslavski has done much for the Polish drama, by 
keeping up the national theatre of Warsaw, and visiting, with his 
itinerant troop, the various parts of the dismembered country, as 
well as by his original works, and the translations of "Hamlet" 

19* 



222 POLISH LITERATURE. 

and " Macbeth ;" indeed, a complete version of Shakspeare has been 
published in Poland within these few years. While on this topic, 
we may also pay tribute to the talent and taste of Poland in the 
production of good operas and fine musical composers. Kurpierski, 
Elsnen, Lipinski, Szopen ( Chopin), are of European fame. OsinsM 
left a name in the theatrical world for his translations of Corneille 
and Voltaire; but this checked the growth of the national theatre. 
At length ; such writers as Wenzyk and Karpinshi brought back the 
taste of their countrymen. They are the best tragic writers of 
Poland; the tragedies of " Grlinski," and of "Boleslaw," by the 
former, are among the finest in the language ; and the " Ludgarda," 
of Karpinshi does him equal honor. Their successful follower, 
Korzenioioshi, is eminently distinguished for the beautiful delinea- 
tion of his female characters. The Moliere of Poland is Count 
Fredro, quick, profound, lively, and always national. Wengiershi, 
already mentioned as a witty satirist, wrote " The Organ," a comic- 
heroic poem; "Pygmalion," " Lyrical Drama," &c. &c. Golucliovshi 
has written "The History of Nations," with the spirit of a true 
philosopher; this work created great sensation among the G-ermans, 
who deeply lamented the early death of the writer. The Princess 
Isabella Czartory ski wrote a fine work on "Gardens;" and, in ac- 
cordance with the principles laid down in it, she embellished her 
seat at Pulawy (now confiscated to the Russian power). A more 
important work of hers is entitled " The Pilgrim of Dobramil," of 
which Polish history is the basis, and morality the superstructure. 
The daughter of the above lady has written excellent Tales ; no 
writer has more admirably painted the domestic life of the Polish 
peasantry. Another lady of distinguished talent is Madame Tanska ; 
her " Mother's Legacy to a Daughter," her works on religion, and 
especially on education, have rendered her quite an authority on 
this last-mentioned topic. She has translated Mrs. Ellis's excellent 
work, called "Woman's Mission," into the Polish language. Oliza- 
roshi is a poet of Volhynia, graceful and ardent; but the most dis- 
tinguished of all Poland's children in literature is Michiewicz. Re- 
markable for his patriotism and fine liberal tone of mind, he began 
his career by silencing the critics, much in the same way as Byron. 
His magnificent poem of the "Dziady" (Feast of the Dead) is a 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 223 

specimen of the most powerful talent, and ranks with Goethe's 
"Faust/' and Byron's " Manfred." It is consoling to observe that 
our Byron's work is the most ennobling of the three. Goethe's 
" Faust" is drawn from the apparent disorder and blind hazard of 
human life ; " Manfred" from divine wisdom and beauty. Where 
Faust sees all things hideous, Manfred meets only beautiful genii, 
on whose calm and pure brow is reflected immortality; while it is 
to the dark scenes of martyrdom that the Polish poet leads us. 
Mkldewicz has invoked the infernal regions, to help him with tem- 
poral ukases, tortures, exile, chains, and instruments of suffering. 
Then angels are invoked by the spiritual reign ; the heroic soul, 
pious enthusiasm, holy indignation, prophetic songs, and divine 
ecstasies; and these are paintings which neither Byron nor Goethe 
could have executed. Among the innumerable phalanx of perverse 
spirits, which poetry uses as emblems of the vices and evils of life, 
there are various hierarchies ; the mocking demon of Goethe is the 
Voltairian Frenchman ; the dark genii of Byron is the romantic 
spirit of the nineteenth century; the Satan of Miclriewicz is brutal 
despotism. It is an ignoble monster, bloody, gross, ferocious, and 
obstinate ; but his whole diabolical army is no play of the imagina- 
tion ; it is a living hell he calls around him. The soldiers of his 
Satan are executioners, jailers, blasphemers, cannibals; they speak 
only of physical tortures, they lap the blood of martyrs, they seek 
to subdue by despair and vengeance. During the persecution 
carried on against the students of Wilna, Mickiewicz was exiled to 
the Crimea, where, as a Polish poet expresses it, " he strewed dia- 
monds in his path." His " Sonnets of the Crimea" are among 
his happiest productions, and were published at Moscow, where, 
through the enlightened government of Prince Galitzin, he was per- 
mitted to reside. His own peculiar situation suggested the poem 
of " Wallenrod," which is enthusiastically admired by his country- 
men, and is supposed to have hastened an insurrection. "Sir 
Thaddcus" is another masterly production, and is called the Georgics 
of Polish literature. "The Book" is another emanation frOm his 
pen, and has great admirers. 

A singular circumstance strikes every one, when examining the 
Polish language and literature: viz., that they have advanced in an 



224 POLISH LITERATURE. 

equal ratio with the increasing misfortunes of the country, during 
the last fifty years. This phenomenon is so extraordinary that it 
deserves the consideration of every reflecting mind. What, indeed, 
should seem more unfavorable to the progress of a nation's mental 
powers than its political annihilation, and the incorporation of its 
dismembered provinces with several foreign states, each respectively 
intent upon destroying every vestige of its former nationality? Yet 
it is a fact, that Polish literature is actually reaching its zenith; and 
at no former period could Poland boast of more distinguished men 
in every department of science and learning, politics even included. 
Yet public and private libraries, to an immense extent, have been, 
at two different periods, sent off to Russia; but, instead of retarding, 
this has only promoted the growth of national literature; in fact, 
every attempt to recover their liberties, however unsuccessful, has 
only helped to invigorate the moral energies of the Poles, and the 
ardent feeling of patriotism, which used to be chiefly confined to one 
class, now animates alike the inhabitants of every cottage and palace 
in Poland. Their literature is more intimately connected with the 
history of their incessant political struggles than is the case with 
any other nation. It is a most potent weapon, which they now 
understand how to use. 

Among the writers of the present age, we may mention Chodzko, 
Czaylwiuski, and Dmoclwioshi, poets; Gorechi, a lyric fabulist; 
MurnicM, a dramatic poet; Jachowicz, a fabulist; Kosmian, a 
poet; Odyniec, Ostrowski, Szydlowski, Tymowshi y Witioicki, and 
Zaleski, all writers of various kinds of poems. As prose writers, 
we have to name Bentoivski, Borroioshi, Chodkicewicz, Dmuszewski, 
Romberg, Golembiowski, Kaminski, Kontrym, Leleioelj Linde, 
Mostowski, Oginski, Onaceioicz, Plater, Raczynski, Rzeivuski, Sen- 
howsky, Sharbeh, SniadecM, Szyrura, KrasinsM — all men whose 
literary talents have distinguished them. Several ladies of Poland 
have deserved the gratitude of their countrymen for their talents 
and patriotism, as, the Princess Lucy Giobroyc, the Princess Rosalie 
LubomirsJca, Madame Tyzenhaus, Madame Mcdecka, Madame 
Widulunsha, Madlle. Korzenioiosha. 

The poetical works of Adam Mlchieim.cz were printed in 1828 at 
Paris, by Pinard, at the expense of the Countess Ostroivska. 



HUNGARIAN LITERATURE. 225 

The Poles have also their literary journals, which, in various 
forms, have attracted and delighted the people, as, " The Monitor/' 
conducted on the model of the "Spectator;" "Agreeable and Useful 
Recreations/' published first by JVaruszewicz, and continued by 
Albertandi ; "The Memorial of Warsaw/' conducted by most able 
men; "The Scientific Journal of Wilna;" the same of Warsaw, with 
a vast variety of periodicals published in the different large cities, 
as, "The Memorial of Leopol," "The Bee of Posen," &c. &c. 

The following is a list of works which may be further consulted 
on the literature of Poland : " Scriptorum Polonicorum Hecaton- 
tas," by Staroicolski; "Slavonia Reformata," by Wengierski ; 
" Museum Polonum," by Jablonowski; " Bibliotheca Poetarum," 
by Zaluski, and the " Magna Bibliotheca;" "Polonia Litterata," 
by Janochi ; " Chronologie" of Albertandi; "Essai sur l'Histoire 
de la Pologne," by Duclos; the third volume of the works of Kra- 
sicki; " Observations sur les Poetes Polonais," by Prince Adam 
Czartoryski ; the literary works of Stanislaus Potocki; " The His- 
tory of Polish Literature," by Bentowski; Juszi/nski's " Diet, of 
Polish Poets;" Ossolinski's "Materials for the History of Polish 
Literature;" LeleioeVs " Bibliographic Polonaise ;" Boivring' s " Spe- 
cimens of Polish Poetry;" " Introduction to the Memoirs of Michel 
Oginski," published at Paris in 1827. 



THE LITERATURE OF HUNGARY. 

Few nations have had a more difficult position to maintain than 
Hungary. The deep sentiment of patriotism has contributed largely 
to her present independence; but she has struggled through long 
years of trial, and has felt the iron of the Austrian government 
enter into her soul. The Latin language still continues to be fre- 
quently that of general intercourse even among the lower classes, 
although the Hungarian dialect is now coming daily more in use, 
and they have had an individual literature for many centuries. 

Stephen, first King of Hungary, was crowned in the year 1000, 
having been baptized a Christian three years before. He founded 
many establishments for learning. 



226 HUNGARIAN LITERATURE. 

The Studium generate of Wesprim was founded a century later ; 
and formed after the plan of the University of Paris. 

In 1358, King Sigismond founded at Ofen another of these semi- 
naries, and King Matliias Corvin enriched it with a library. A 
little later, this last-mentioned prince founded the University of 
Presburg. 

The first printing press was established at Ofen (Buda) by An- 
drew Hesz y somewhat later than the middle of the fifteenth century, 
and the first work printed was "Chronicon Budense." At the 
close of this century, the Literary Society of the Danube was formed 
by Conrad Celtes. 

The most ancient monument of the Hungarian dialect is their 
popular songs. Under the reign of Louis the Great, at the begin- 
ning of the fourteenth century, the national tongue was cultivated 
with some degree of success, it being that king's especial desire to 
encourage it. The Bible was translated for the first time into this 
tongue, and the first grammar of it was made by John Panonius. 

In the sixteenth century, it made a rapid progress. A dictionary 
was formed by Kovats. Tinodi, Kahonagi, Tsanadi, Valkai, 
Tsaktornyi, Tserenyi, FaseJcas, Szegedi, Balassa, Enydi, and others, 
were all native poets of this period. 

In the next century, an encyclopaedia was compiled by Tsere 
Apaszai, who also made very diligent researches on the language of 
his country. An epic poem now appeared from the pen of Count 
Nicolas Zriny. Ladi&las Lissthij Pasko, Kohary, and Gcengyoesi 
were also epic poets of the same period. Rimai and Benitzky 
wrote lyric poems, while sacred poetry had also many votaries. 
There are many Latin chronicles of this period, of which the " Belae 
Begis Notarius," by an anonymous writer, is the most remarkable. 
Among Hungarian chroniclers, we may name Szekely (who is cele- 
brated), Temesvari, Heltat, Pethoe, Bariha, Lisnyai. 

At the opening of the eighteenth century, Parizpapai published 
his valuable dictionary; and the first newspaper was published at 
Presburg by Mathias Bath. After the death of Joseph II. of 
Austria, there was a brilliant burst of progress in the Hungarian 
literature. The language was taught in schools, and the National 
Acts were published in it. A theatre was opened at Ofen, and 



DUTCH LITERATURE. 227 

another at Pcsth. Several newspapers were commenced. The 
Emperor Francis II granted their national literature his protec- 
tion. 

The poets of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are nume- 
rous, namely: Szabo, Rajuis, Daika, Aranka, Doeme, Batsanyi, 
Takats, Horvah, TeleJci, Fekete, Matyasi, Ragy, Versegi, Virags, 
KovatSy Charles and Alexander Kisfaludi, the first a dramatic poet, 
and the second a lyric poet, both of the first class of talent; Dce- 
brcenteij Szemere, Csokonai, Tot, Verzsenyi, Vikovits, &c. The 
prose writers are equally numerous, among whom we may mention 
Dugonitz, Budai, Batlwri, Feier, Ilarthon, Frtsei, Sarvari, En- 
drcedi. 



THE LITERATURE OF HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 

The United Provinces were for many centuries the cradle of 
literature, and the nursery of men of science and of learning. The 
Universities of Groningen, Utrecht, Leyden, Guelderland, and the 
celebrated school of Amsterdam, were resorted to by studious men 
from all countries in the north of Europe, at the same period as the 
universities of Italy were as eagerly sought by men of the south. 
And what a host of accomplished artists have sprung from this 
people, of whose literary produce we know so little ! This is the 
more singular, since our commercial and political connections with 
Holland have been so closely interwoven. Unwearied industry, and 
the spirit of patient perseverance, characterize the people of this 
country; and, although devoted to commerce, yet they were the 
first in Europe who found time to encourage the arts and sciences. 
I say the first, for several years before Italy was in her glory under 
the Medici, the Dutch, besides their magnificent manufactories, had 
invented oil painting and introduced printing. The microscope and 
the pendulum we owe to them too, at a later date. Men of learning 
were quietly pursuing their valuable studies in her universities; but 
there was no Lorenzo the Magnificent to protect and encourage 
them. 

The great hall in the Hotel de Ville at Bruges contains a library 



228 DUTCH LITERATURE. 

of near eight thousand volumes, some of which are of great rarity. 
Every other large city has its library. 

The monastery of St. Martin and the abbey of St. Bertin, at 
Mechlin, produced scholars of eminence in the tenth and eleventh 
centuries ; and when Alfred wished to establish collegiate institutions 
in England, he sent for Grrumbalde, to whom Oxford was indebted 
as early as 886 for the foundation of its far-famed university. The 
work called " Livre des Assises et des bons Usages du Royaume de 
Jerusalem" served as a model for Godfrey of Boulogne, and is still 
the admiration of the best writers on national jurisprudence. No 
people were, consequently, possessed of better laws; and princely 
legislators sent to form their codes upon the same basis, when Henri 
Goethals excited so much gratitude for his labors that he was pre- 
sented by the Sorbonne with the title of doctor, par excellence, as 
the most learned jurisconsult of the times. He was followed by a 
throng of great names — prelates, doctors, grand dignitaries — all men 
of first-rate merit. The succession of genius in the family of the 
Gceilials alone, in the opinion of the biographers, was sufficient to 
illustrate the literary character of their country. 

In the twelfth century the chivalric tastes of the age were repre- 
sented by Christian de Troyes, a native of Hainault, who spent 
many years at the court of Philip of Alsace. His poems are but 
little known. In the same century, the favorite subject of Reynard 
the Fox was adopted by several Flemish poets; and was printed 
among the early productions of the press at Delft. 

In the middle of the thirteenth century, Henry III., Duke of 
Brabant, was an ardent friend to literature, and a poet of considerable 
merit. The great luxury of the Flemish nobles drew crowds of 
poets around them, foreign as well as native ; but the more sprightly 
language of the French, and their intuitive wit, pleased oftener than 
the national broad humor, and, consequently, many of these early 
writers assumed the Romaine French, in order to recommend their 
compositions to the courtly circles. The fabulous history of "Berte 
and Pepin," one of the works of the poet Aclenez, is marked as 
possessing surprising grace and correctness, and ranks the author as 
a man of decidedly superior talent. 

The fourteenth century brought war and all its distractions into 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 229 

the homes of the before happy Flemings. Literature faded away, 
and all pleasure in its encouragement disappeared till the time of 
Philip the Good of Burgundy, whose just and judicious govern- 
ment of his Belgian provinces brought back the affrighted muses. 

The Netherlands were governed originally by their own dukes 
and earls, until, by marriages and other contracts, several provinces 
fell to the House of Burgundy, and after that to Austria. At the 
time of Luther, the Low Countries were the centre of European 
learning, and the Flemish, or Low Dutch, language was more gene- 
ral, especially in maritime nations, than any other. Their literature 
ranked the first, and the students of their universities went out 
into all the countries of Europe as professors to enlighten other 
nations. But the policy of Charles V. of Germany was the cause 
of this brilliant position being completely clouded. His son, Philip 
II. of Spain, attempted to alter the constitution, fearing the Re- 
formers and the independent spirit of the Dutch. xlfter their 
victorious struggle, the seven provinces which cast off the yoke of 
Spain were the first in intellectual progress. 

The censorship of the Austrian government was such, that few 
men of talent wrote in the Flemish dialect; indeed, they fled into 
Holland, and carried along with them many of the first merchants 
of the once flourishing provinces of Flanders, Brabant, and Ant- 
werp. For nearly two hundred and fifty years this dearth of na- 
tional productions lasted, and the splendid literary distinction of 
the country faded to a mere remembrance. Van Meteveh and Van 
Meerbehe were historians who flourished during the time of the 
severe Spanish restriction of the Flemish intellect, and escaped the 
searching eye of the Inquisition as if by miracle. 

Philip II. had sent the Duke of Alva (or Alba) into the Low 
Countries to subdue the spirit of the inhabitants, and the cruelty 
of this military despot found an object in the worthy and patriotic 
Anthony Strorelen of Antwerp, President of the Chamber of Rhe- 
toric. The well-known poet Lemaire was of this period, and is 
claimed by the French. (See page 115.) Margaret of Austria 
introduced a happier state of things, which, however, did not last, 
for her death was followed by a host of calamities. 

The Dutch are justly proud of their language, which, they say, 
20 



230 BUTCH LITERATURE. 

is the purest of all the G-othic dialects, and the most abundant and 
sonorous ; but it is with difficulty acquired by foreigners. It is a 
branch of the German, Danish, Norwegian, and consequently of the 
English. Some writers have said that it is peculiarly adapted to 
the expression of devout and dignified emotion ; it may, at least, 
b'e studied in its perfection in that beautiful and emphatic version 
of the Bible which owes its existence to the Synod of 1618. 

About the middle of the thirteenth century, the public decrees 
and civil acts were first written in the language of the country ; 
but before this period Latin was the only medium of communication 
between men of letters and the upper classes. The Dutch have 
always been celebrated for their pure Latinity, and still deserve to 
be so : for in our own times Meerman, Cras, and Van Lennep may 
be quoted as the legitimate heirs of classical fame. 

The language of this people was first called Flemish; partly be- 
cause the Flemish princes were for some time predominant by their 
great prosperity, and partly because the old- Flemish writers paid 
more attention to the purity of diction. The Brabant resembled 
most the Flemish idiom ; the Batavian or Dutch was, on the con- 
trary, more grave and forcible. This distinction continued till the 
end of the fifteenth century, when all character was lost, and the 
language and people remained in a debased condition till after the 
Spanish disturbances. It was then that the Dutch so far surpassed 
the Flemish, both in purity of language and force of character, that 
the Flemish tongue was entirely superseded in the northern pro- 
vince, and never has recovered its former importance. The com- 
mencement of the independent development of the Dutch language 
also marks the beginning of Dutch literature. 

The Dutch maintain that a native of Holland created the means 
by which knowledge and civilization are conveyed throughout the 
world. Lawrence Coster, they say, was the inventor of printing, 
and they allege that this is established beyond all controversy in a 
learned work by Koning. In the year 1823, the fourth centenary 
of this all-important discovery was celebrated at Haerlem, when a 
deputation of printers from America crossed the Atlantic to honor 
the festival. 

Among the most distinguished scholars of this country was Eras- 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 231 

muSj or Gerard Didicr, a native of Rotterdam. He was the most 
elegant of the modern Latin authors, and one of the great restorers 
of learning in Europe. To the writings of Erasmus we may attri- 
bute the dawning of the Reformation, as it was he who introduced 
the spirit of inquiry on all points, although he had been much 
valued at one time by the superiors of the Church of Rome as a 
warm adherent. In one of his letters, he gives an interesting ac- 
count of his reception at Rome by Cardinal Grirnani, which proves 
in what high estimation he was held. He visited England five dif- 
ferent times, Henry VIII. paid him great deference : and Erasmus 
formed a firm friendship with the excellent Sir Thomas More. For 
some time, Erasmus gave lectures on the Greek literature at Cam- 
bridge, and then retired to Basle in Switzerland, where most of his 
works were published, especially his celebrated Latin "Colloquies." 
This work displeased the Roman Catholics; and, as Erasmus had 
not declared for the Protestants, he had but lukewarm friends in 
either party. For, at the same time, his " Treatise on Free Will" 
made an open breach between him and Luther, whose opinions 
were in favor of predestination. Erasmus made many translations 
from the Greek authors, and also a very valuable translation into 
Latin of the New Testament. Few learned men have been so 
greatly admired as was Erasmus in his lifetime; all the principal 
sovereigns of Europe tried to draw him into their kingdoms. His 
learning was surprising, his taste exquisite, and his industry un- 
wearied. 

The Reformation addressed itself less to the learned than to the 
people ; it therefore borrowed their language, and favored the culture 
of the Flemish dialect. The Bible was translated into Flemish, 
but the printer was put to death. About this period, lived the 
Flemish Sappho, Anne Byns; she was mistress of a school at Ant- 
werp, and a warm opposer of Luther. Matliys Casteleyn wrote his 
" Art of Poetry." GMstele was author of a poem called " The Sac- 
rifice of Iphigenia," and translated Virgil, Horace, and Terence. 
Deenne was a Flemish fabulist, and Ondegherst wrote in the French 
language his "Annals of Flanders." 

Grotius (or Hugo de Groote) was another of the master-minds 
of this country. He wrote with spirit, elegance, and imagination, 



232 DUTCH LITERATURE. 

His chief works are "A Treatise on War and on Peace;" "A 
Treatise on the Truths of the Christian Religion;" " Commentaries 
on the Scriptures;" "The History and Annals of Holland/' and a 
great number of letters. The works of Grotius on Jurisprudence 
have been the great foundation on which Europe has built her pre- 
sent system of law and the doctrine of right. The earnest attach- 
ment of Grotius to the great statesman Barneveldt involved him 
in much trouble. Politics and religion were warmly contested 
throughout Europe, and in Holland the strong and upright mind of 
Barneveldt could not yield to the weak favorite of Elizabeth, Leices- 
ter, who had been sent over with troops to aid the Dutch against 
Spain. Grotius wrote many acrimonious things against the Eng- 
lish, for which we have to thank the self-conceited Leicester. It 
was during the imprisonment of Grotius in the Castle of Louve- 
stein that he wrote the most elaborate poem in the Dutch language, 
entitled " Evidence of the True Religion;" and by this work he 
laid the groundwork of that attention to religious duties which is 
universal in Holland. The authority of his great name, always 
associated with Christianity, with peace, with literature, with free- 
dom, and with suffering virtue, has ever been a bulwark of truth 
and morals. The egotistical pride of authorship, so well known as 
belonging to our king, James I., was one of the reasons of the per- 
secution of Barneveldt. James sent to the statesman of Holland 
a work written against the Arminians, and not receiving in return 
the adulation he expected, he joined all his strength to that of 
Prince Maurice of Orange for Barneveldt' s destruction. A cotem- 
porary with Grotius was Lipsius, who distinguished himself in 
literature, and is looked upon as a very learned critic. He is re- 
markable for the unsteadiness of his religious opinions, fluctuating 
often between Catholicism and Protestantism; for, in those days, 
religion was the great trial and topic of life, and in no country were 
the effects of the Reformation more visible than among the concen- 
trated population of the Netherlands. The universities, also, were 
frequented by so many learned philosophers, that this vital question 
was naturally constantly discussed; warm and earnest contests 
arose as each studious man interpreted either the Scriptures or 
their commentators. Other philologists of this period were less 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 233 

conspicuous; as Despauierius, or Van Pauteren; Clenardus, or 
Cleynarts; Ninnius, or Nanningh; Leopard; Canter; Junius, or 
Joiujlu ; Van Metherche; TorrcnUus ; Gifanius, or Van Giffin; 
Vinandus Pighius. These were writers from the commencement 
of the sixteenth century to its close. 

Arminius (whose real name was Harmansen) was the cause of 
the death of Barnevelclt, and of the imprisonment of Grotius; or, 
rather, we should say, the discussions of the principles of Arminius 
were the cause. He was a native of Amsterdam, and the mild sup- 
porter of toleration. 

There were two learned Dutch writers of the name of Heinsius, 
father and son. The father was Councillor of State to Gustavus 
Adolphus, and was so remarkable for his attainments, that Pope 
Urban VIII. wrote to entreat him " to come and rescue Kome from 
barbarism j" and, at the same time, the republic of Venice made 
him a Knight of the Order of St. Mark. He was a pupil of the 
celebrated Joseph Scaliger, and has left many valuable things, both 
in prose and poetry. His son became as great -a Latin poet as his 
father, and a still greater critic. The celebrated Salmasius, al- 
though a Frenchman by birth, is looked upon as a naturalized son 
of Holland, for, after studying in her universities, he settled at 
Leyden, and there became noted for his abilities and immense eru- 
dition; he was a violent opposer and calumniator of Grotius. Upon 
the exile of Charles I. of England, Salmasius was prevailed upon 
to write a defence of that monarch, which was answered by Milton, 
in a work entitled "A Defence of the English People against Sal- 
masius' s Defence of the King." This book was read all over Eu- 
rope, and conveyed such a proof of the author's abilities, that he 
was respected even by those who were of contrary principles. Sal- 
masius died soon after, and some do not scruple to say that Milton 
killed him by the acuteness of his reply. 

Meantime, the national literature had taken a decided place in the 
country. The United States had commanded Bor to write in Dutch 
the history of their struggles with Spain. This work was continued 
by Aitzema. But the Dutch being but a fraction of the people of 
Europe, their language could not become sufficiently general to 
make their native literature much known. They are a people fer* 

20* 



234 BUTCH LITERATURE. 

tile in men of erudition, of theologians, of men of science, and of 
painters, and their poets are very far from not doing equal honor to 
their country, though hitherto they have been but as the violets in 
the shade. We have remarked already that, in the sixteenth cen- 
tury, Holland stood at the head of all Europe for its learning and 
its classical writings; but it was this very habit of writing in Latin 
that retarded their national literature. 

The essential character of the poetry of Holland, that which 
marks it in every age, and all its varieties, is a high tone of reli- 
gious feeling, a sublimity borrowed from devout associations. Van 
Maerlant is considered the father of Flemish poets; he was distin- 
guished as a philosopher and an orator; and what renders him re- 
markable is, that he was not of the Church, although all learning 
in his time was confined to the clergy. Maerlant (1300) translated 
into his own tongue many of the standard works of the ancients, 
among which are " The Beauties of Aristotle." Many followed 
him, but none improved upon him, although the " Poetic Chronicle" 
of Melts Stoke (1305) was published as late as 1772; but we must 
look upon the works of Maerlant more as curiosities than as sub- 
jects for criticism. His are the first developments of the germ of 
national poetry, and, however deficient in imagery and rugged in 
rhyme, entitle their author to our attention, as they obtained for 
him the gratitude of his countrymen. He aspired to the attain- 
ment of knowledge and its communication when it was an almost 
forbidden possession. The stream of literature has flowed on, 
gathering in its progress a thousand contributing rivulets : let us 
not forget the humble and remote spring. It is a singular fact, 
that the means which were employed in the fourteenth century for 
the advancement of the language and its literature, became in the 
highest degree instrumental to its degradation. We allude to the 
chambers of rhetoric which were founded towards the end of this 
era. The degeneracy of the language, as it afterwards appeared, 
may chiefly be attributed to the wandering orators (Sproekers), who, 
being called to the courts of princes, or admitted, though uninvited, 
rehearsed the miserable doggerel produced by themselves. These 
persons afterwards formed themselves, in Flanders and Brabant, 
into literary societies, which were known by the name of Chambers 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 235 

of Rhetoric, and which offered prizes to the most meritorious poets, 
in imitation of the French. The example of Flanders was speedily 
followed by Zealand and Holland. In 1437, there was a chamber 
at Middleburg, at Vlaardingin, at Niewkerk, and at Gouda. Even 
insignificant villages had their chamber; but the purity of the lan- 
guage was completely undermined by these rhyming, self-styled 
rhetoricians. This century, therefore, introduced no improvement 
on the age that preceded. A little later, the Flemish chroniclers 
were making immortal names. The picturesque Froissart was the 
chronicler of France, England, Scotland, and Spain. Henricourt 
wrote, in the Liege dialect, his " Mirror of the Nobles of Hasbage," 
and other works. Monstrelet wrote " Chronicles from 1400 to 1453." 
Chastelain wrote " The History of the good Chevalier James of 
Lalain." At the opening of the sixteenth century, Olivier de la 
Marche had chronicled the life of Charles the Bold, and written 
" Memoirs from 1435 to 1474." The inroads of the Flemings soon 
produced a considerable change. The violent party spirit and civil 
dissensions of this epoch must have vent, while still the spirit of 
true religious feeling was to be traced; and the poets found protec- 
tion under Philip the Good, of Burgundy, and Charles the Bold. 
We must not, however, pass over without observation the romantic 
poetry of tradition which here, in the Netherlands, held its power 
over the mind as strongly as in the brighter regions of the South. 

The universality of some of the fables of romance is one of the 
most curious facts of literary history. The Knights of the Bound 
Table have been celebrated in almost every dialect of Europe, and 
even beyond its boundaries; youth gathered incitement from their 
tales to deeds of glory and of virtue; and in Holland the maiden 
learnt them by heart as earnestly as she conned her breviary. 

A remarkable family, in the middle of the sixteenth century, 
deserves notice here. Nicolas Everardi, or Everts, was the father of 
three brothers, all distinguished in literature. John Everts took 
the name John or Jan Second, because he had an uncle of the 
same name. He went with Charles V. of Germany into Africa, 
and although he died at the age of twenty-five, is looked upon as one 
of the best Latin poets of modern times. Besides elegies, epigrams, 
odes, funeral pieces and miscellanies, he wrote a poem entitled "The 



236 DUTCH LITERATURE. 

XIX Kisses/' which is considered a chef d'ceuvre, and has been 
translated into most European languages. Adrian Everts wrote 
graceful Latin poems; and Nicolas, called also Grudius (from 
having been born in Louvain, country of the ancient G-rudii), held 
distinguished offices under Charles V. and Philip II., and was 
author of many Latin poems, sacred and profane. 

But at length the spirit of religious inquiry opened a large field 
of freedom and of virtue; and while the political liberties of the 
Netherlands began to dawn again, knowledge spread widely her 
benignant and encouraging influences. The impetuous character of 
Luther had shaken the tottering pillars of authority and usurpation; 
while Erasmus, though ambiguous in his policy, and wavering in 
his will, had opened the flood-gates of inquiry by his translation of 
the Scriptures. The severe edicts of Charles V. of Germany (for 
the Netherlands were under the government of Austria at this time), 
dooming the supporters of the Reformation to death — the men to 
the sword, and the women to be burnt alive — gave new enthusiasm 
to the persecuted ; and even Fruitiers, the Master of Requests to the 
King of Holland, became a zealous reformer and an arduous writer, 
both in prose and verse. Then Coornhert, private secretary to the 
States, wrote in a very pure style his sweet verses, and greatly dis- 
tinguished himself by his upright and intrepid conduct. His career 
was opened by a poem of gratitude, full of strength and interest, on 
the character of William the Taciturn. His verses are, however, 
far from the style and regularity which, at a later date, distinguished 
the poetry of Holland ; but as yet rhyme was unknown in their 
literature. Marinx de St. Aldegonde was author of the celebrated 
u Compromise of the Nobles," and translated the Psalms into verse 
in the Dutch language; Dathenus at the same time translated them 
with more fire than the calm St. Aldegonde, and obtained the prize 
proposed by the States of Holland, which preserved his version in 
use for Divine service down to near the close of the eighteenth 
century. The best satirical poets of this country, Vissclier and 
Spiehgel, were formed in the Amsterdam society before mentioned. 
Visscher-Roemer, surnamed the Martial of his country, had two 
daughters, Anne and Maria, who were both distinguished in letters. 
Spiehgel, author of the celebrated poem of " The Mirror of the 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 237 

Heart," introduced the use of masculine and feminine rhymes, 
according to the French fashion. The poetry of YisscJier and his 
daughters consists of small pieces of mixed character, epigrams, and 
madrigals. The father is distinguished for his naivete', and the 
daughters for the delicacy of their sentiments. A high degree of 
perfection in the literary language of this country was attained by 
Peter Cornelius Hooft. This learned and laborious author was at 
once historian, lyric poet, and tragic poet. It is said that he read 
Tacitus fifty-two times, in order to he able to follow his style. Hooft 
left a good " Life of Henry IV. of France," which obtained for him 
the Order of St. Michel and a patent of nobility from Louis XIII. 
His "History of Holland from the Time of Charles V.," and a 
translation of Tacitus, are monuments of his talent in prose writing. 
From this time the prose of Holland became remarkably vigorous 
and energetic; indeed, the whole tone of the literature was elevated 
by the rapid improvement of the language. At the age of nineteen, 
Hooft was already a member of the Amsterdam Chamber of Litera- 
ture, which was far more celebrated than any of the other societies. 
The pastoral poem, entitled "Granida," is as beautiful a specimen 
of harmony as any in the language. By reading the Italian poets, 
Hooft learned to impart that melody to his own language, of which 
it had not been thought susceptible. He refined the versification 
of his age without divesting it of its vigor; his mind had drunk 
deeply at the founts of knowledge, and his productions are always 
harmonious and often sublime. Hooft was a man of liberal senti- 
ments, and was respected by all parties. He dared to protect 
Grotius in the days of his persecution; meditated offering an asylum 
to Galileo, in order to withdraw him from the persecutions of his 
dark-minded enemies; and defended Descartes from the fanaticism 
of Voetius. 

The friends of literature were in the habit of meeting at the 
house of Vtsscher, and it was here that the drama of Holland not 
only had its birth, but rose to its highest splendor. The tragedy 
of Hooft, entitled "Gerard of Velsen/ 7 would be a masterpiece in 
any country, and in all ages. 

Up to the year 1750, the Dutch theatre was carried to a consider- 
able degree of perfection. Vander-Gon, Eotgans, and Duif were 



238 DUTCH LITERATURE. 

incomparably better dramatists than what the period of Grottsched 
produced in Germany. One of the most venerated writers among 
the Dutch was Jacob Kats; at once original and sublime, his talent 
suits particularly the taste of his countrymen. He is less the poet 
of imagination than of truth; less the inciter to deeds of heroism 
and glory than the gentle adviser . to acts of virtue and innocent 
enjoyments; less capable of awakening the impulses of fancy than 
of calling into exertion the dormant energies of reason and morality ; 
and was as celebrated for the purity of his life as for the sound 
sense and virtuous tendency of his writings. Kats possessed an 
admirable knowledge of men, a correct judgment, and striking sim- 
plicity of language; indeed, it is a question whether he did not 
indulge too freely in his love for unvarnished matters of fact. The 
" foreign aid of ornament" might have set off to advantage that 
earnest and interesting zeal in favor of truth and piety, which is so 
prominent in his works. But there is something so hearty in his 
unsophisticated style, something so touching in his simplicity, and 
something so frank and noble in his precepts, that we can scarcely 
regret his having given them to us unchanged by refinement, and 
unadorned by art. Kats is the poet of the people ; though his wis- 
dom was vast and his habits contemplative. But the ease, abund- 
ance, simplicity, and clearness of his style have made him at once 
popular and useful. No one has been more read than Father Kats, 
as the people affectionately call him, and up to the present hour 
his verses are known by heart by half the population of his country. 
His chief works are "The Bible of Youth," a collection of poems 
for the different ages of life, fables, songs, and other pieces in Latin, 
French, and Dutch. He has put into verse the story of " Emma 
and Eginhard," and written a poem called " The Wedding King." 
He also wrote the history of himself in verse, which he entitled 
"A Life of Eighty-two Years." The family named Elzevir was 
remarkable for its persevering industry in printing classical works 
of the most correct copies and beautiful type. These publications 
are still highly valued. The noble and gifted Reael next appears; 
but his busy life of statesman, vice-admiral, and ambassador, left 
him but short time for his visits to Parnassus. He wrote an ex- 
quisite poem called "The Origin of Kisses." He was followed by 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 239 

the tender Bredero, and the pious Kamphuysen, who is particularly 
popular among the Dutch. The deep conviction of truth and the 
elevated devotion which distinguish Kamplmysen have been con- 
veyed by him in harmonious versification; and his poems are be- 
come the common source of consolation in distress. By this time, 
Samuel Coster had opened at Amsterdam the first Dutch Theatre, 
under the name of an Academy, and was himself the author of 
several tragedies on Greek and Roman subjects. Gerclcmans gave 
his tragedy of "The Battle of Nieuporte." Rodenburg wrote his 
" Charles the Bold/' Lucas Rotgans was author of a tragedy en- 
titled "Sylla;" and Catherine Lescailje translated with success 
several pieces from Racine and P. Corneille. These were the pre- 
cursors of the master spirit, Vondel, who is placed in the highest 
scale among the poets of the Netherlands. His tragedies are stand- 
ard works; among which, "Palamedes Unjustly Sacrificed" is pecu- 
liarly interesting in its chief incident, which sets forth the heroic 
firmness of Barneveldt, who repeated one of Horace's odes when 
undergoing the torture. But VondeVs finest tragedy is "Gilbert 
of Amstel," in which his patriotism and great and noble exploits 
are powerfully rendered in remarkably fine verses. Vondel is con- 
sidered the Racine of Holland. His poem of " Lucifer" is not 
equal in chaste beauty to his tragedies, savoring somewhat of affec- 
tation and singularity. The poet was deeply imbued with religious 
enthusiasm, and took many of his subjects from the Bible. Other 
Dutch tragedies have obtained a just renown, and Rodenberg's 
"Charles the Bold" is one of the best; but none equaled VondeVs. 

Comedy has no positive element in Holland, and remains only a 
coarse, grotesque thing, that rather deserves the epithet of ludicrous 
farce : Bredero and Focquenbroch are the least unpleasing writers, 
but are of slight repute. Bredero wrote " The Miller," " The Cow," 
"Simon," and many others of similar character. Focquenbroch' s 
best piece was " Love in the Madhouse," which is still played in 
the minor theatres of Amsterdam. There is a French theatre at 
the Hague, which supplies the necessary quantum of comedy. 

The energetic and severe manners which produced Hooft and 
Vondel did not last long enough to produce an epic poem for Hol- 
land. John Antonides, or Van der Goes, called by Vondel, his son } 



240 DUTCH LITERATURE. 

wrote a charming poem on the river Y (near Amsterdam), which 
was the first of the works called "Kiver Poems," numbers of which 
followed. Huyyens, another friend of Tondel, looked on the world 
and its ways with an eye of gayety; but has drawn snch a picture 
of royalty as makes the heart ache. Deklier is noted for his feeling; 
intense and romantic, he is the poet of the heart, and never misleads 
it: he excels in birthday and bridal songs, which are affecting from 
their very simplicity and beauty; and there is not a line, a phrase, 
scarcely a word, that can be omitted or improved. In an opposite 
style were Jonktys and Vos, who made their heroines Alinervas and 
Yenuses. Wtsterhaen was noble in rank and character: he was the 
strenuous defender of Barneveldt; his three volumes of poetry are 
full of beauty and grace. ''The Plague of Naples" is a production 
of singular vigor by Anslo, and crowded with all the frightful imagery 
of its awful subject Gerard Brandt turned his thoughts to tragedy, 
and at a very early age wrote a piece entitled " The Dissembling 
Torquatus/'" which has many striking resemblances to the Hamlet 
of Shakspeare; although it is believed the young author had not 
the least knowledge of the existence of such a piece. Brandt being 
of humble parentage, and without means of education, a patron and 
kind encourager was found in Van Kempetij himself a learned and 
talented man. It has been said that Gerard Brandt's ''History of 
the Reformation in Holland'' is written so admirably, that it were 
worth while to learn the language in order to read that single work. 
After completing his studies, Brandt married a daughter of his 
patron, and was the father of sons who have even excelled him in 
literary reputation. There was another remarkable family of this 
country named Dousa, or Van der Does. John, Lord of Xoordwyck, 
wrote "The Annals of Holland" in Latin verse, which work was 
continued by his son Johannes Dousa, or John Does. George wrote 
his " Travels to Constantinople/' and other works. Francis wrote 
"Commentaries;" Theodore was a poet and philologist. Erycius, 
or Van de Putte, was a disciple of Eijosius, and, besides writing a 
little poem called "The Praise of Winter," was author of ninety- 
eight works of philosophy and history. Hosschius, or De Ilossche, 
a Jesuit, was a Latin poet of great talent. He wrote a poem on 
•'The Deliverance of Cambray." Beronicus. though a chimney- 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 241 

sweeper, wrote a Latin poem called "The War of the Peasants/' 
which has been put into Dutch verse. Becanus, a Jesuit, wrote 
idyls and elegies. Wallius, or Van de Waille, also a Jesuit, wrote 
some remarkable odes. 

In the middle of the seventeenth century, the Flemish language 
greatly degenerated. Holland had become independent, and gave 
an asylum to the bold writers of Protestant faith; but the Low 
Countries were under the baneful influence of the Spanish Jesuits, 
who pervaded every rank of society. The public instruction was 
monopolized by them, and henceforth the national literature de- 
clined. Adrian Poirters, however, endeavored to imitate Kats in 
his "Carnival of the World;" and some few others, as Gcsscliier, 
Lambreclit, and Caudron, tried to follow him; but the dialect of 
their country became daily more corrupted, and was at last aban- 
doned entirely to the lower classes. Specimens of this corrupted 
language are to be seen in the "Eclipse of the Sun, or Discourse on 
the Death of his Serene Highness Albert, " by Bernard de Mont- 
fjaiUard; in the "Chronicle of the Salbes," by Gilles Waulde; the 
"Antiquities of Flanders," by L'Espinoy; and in the "Annals of 
Hainault," by Ruteau. The Jesuit, John Bollandus, is remarkable 
for having undertaken the collection entitled "The Acts or Lives 
of the Saints." The first and second volumes, containing the lives 
of the saints of the month of January, appeared at Antwerp in 
1643. The third and fourth came out in 1658. The following 
volumes, to the number of fifty-three, were written by various 
authors ; but the work only goes as far as the middle of October. 
It is as well to observe that the Komanists give a saint to every 
day in the year. Hensclienius, a pupil of Bollandus, was the first 
continuer of these lives, and was invited by Pope Alexander VII. 
to Rome. The next was Papehrocli, who went with Ilenschcniits to 
Rome, and quarreled with the Carmelite monks because they would 
not attribute the founding of their order to the prophet Elijah. 
Several other Jesuits continued the work, and are known as the 
Bollandists. Other distinguished philologists of the seventeenth 
century were Putschius, or Putschen; Paulus Merula; Bonav. 
Vulcanius, or Scmid; Meursius, or VanMeurs; Isaacus Pontanus; 
Seriverius, or Sckryver, and Com. Schrevelius. 
21 



242 DUTCH LITBKATURE. 

Under Maria Theresa of Austria, the Low Countries had a better 
aspect, and in the middle of the eighteenth century the Academy 
of Brussels was founded; but its members neglected the Flemish 
tongue, and wrote in French or Latin. At Liege the French tongue 
had long been spoken, and here Baron Walef wrote the verses whose 
correctness astonished Boileau. The estimable bibliographer Paquot 
was also a native of this city. 

In the mean time, Holland had also experienced a decline in her 
literature. Her authors of this epoch are deficient in originality. 
It seemed as if they were ashamed of their nation, and found merit 
only in imitating the French. A fastidious care about words, and 
a minuteness in research, took the place of boldness and independ- 
ence of style. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Hubert 
Hoot, however, dared to be himself, and may be compared to our 
Burns. There were also three brothers of the name of Van der 
Kodde, who are remarkable for their originality and variety of 
talent. They founded the Rliynsburger Society. Dideric Smite 
wrote the poem of " Belphegor, or Voluptuousness Punished," who 
added to the river poems by writing on the Botte. Another class 
of poets took the Bible for their subject ; of these Hoogvliet was the 
best and first. After him, Bruin wrote "The Life of St. Paul;" 
Haas wrote " Judas the Traitor" and "Jonas the Bepentant;" 
Steemvyk wrote "Gideon;" and Verstey, "Moses." After these, 
appeared numerous others of the same kind, of which the " Jacob" 
of Duim, the" Apostle Peter" of Klinkhamer, and the "Joseph" 
of Snahenburg, were all surpassed by the " David" of Madame 
Van Merken, or Van Winter, by which latter name she is less 
known, having married the poet Winter at an advanced age. Ma- 
dame Van Winter was a woman of remarkable talent. Her poem 
" On the Utility of the Affections" abounds with beautiful thoughts, 
and the one entitled " G-ermanicus" has also great merit. Her 
tragedies, entitled " The Siege of Leyden," " James de Byk," 
"Mary of Burgundy," "Louisa of Arlac," " Sybilla of Anjou," 
are favorites with her countrymen. Her husband's tragedy of 
" Monzongo" reminds the reader of Voltaire. " Menzikoff " is 
also by the same author. Winter also wrote a poem on the river 
Amstel. Wagenaar compiled a large work, entitled "The History 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 243 

of the Country, or Annals of the United Provinces." His great 
impartiality is highly valued. Simon Styl has been called the 
Montesquieu of Holland, for his admirable work entitled the " Origin 
and Greatness of the United Provinces." Water made a conscien- 
tious work in his " History of the Confederation of the Nobles." 
Gerard Meeman has written a work entitled " William, Count of 
Holland and King of the Romans." 

Two remarkable poems were written during the time that Hol- 
land was deluged with religious verses, and Hoogvliet's "Abraham" 
had gained some little reputation : these were, one on the founda- 
tion of the Frisons' nation, and the other on the celebrated frater- 
nity called the Beggars, by two brothers, William and Onno Van 
Haren : they are epic poems, and contain splendid passages. " The 
Vicissitudes of Human Life" and " Leonidas" were by the younger 
brother : this last poem obtained the congratulations of Voltaire. 

The poet Feitama has very ably translated " Telemachus," and 
the "Henriade," which last he took ten years to correct and polish; 
he translated many French plays with talent. Langendyk wrote a 
poem entitled " William the First," and the well-known comedy of 
"Don Quixote at the Marriage of Gramacha." He travestied the 
fourth book of the iEneid into a play called "Eneas in his Sunday 
Clothes," and has formed a series of pieces from the Dutch tales. 
Nbmsz was prolific in tragedy. At the beginning of the nineteenth 
century, we find Bakker's poem "On the Floods of the Country," 
and one entitled "The Banishment of Poets." Van Alphen's 
"National Songs" have given him a distinguished name. The 
lyrics of Bellamy of Flessing are highly esteemed, as also the works 
of his two friends, Ban and Klein; Nieidand, in his "Ode on 
Orion," has brilliantly given the wonders of astronomy. But it is 
only in our own time that the poet Helmers has given the Dutch a 
national epic. This poem is truly admirable both in subject and 
manner; and "The Dutch Nation" has all the peculiarity of the 
best early Dutch writers, with all the grace and information of 
modern times. We have yet to name the veteran Bilderjik, whose 
intellectual powers and varied erudition were not more remarkable 
than the purity of his life and the warmth of his benevolence. Van 
Effen is called the Addison of Holland, and published a periodical 






244 DUTCH LITERATURE. 

entitled " The Misanthrope ;" he founded also, with Barre de Bean- 
marcliais, the " Literary Journal/' published at the Hague, and 
several other works of this kind. Lambert Ten Kate is considered 
the legislator of the Dutch language, having written several excel- 
lent works upon it. The most remarkable writers of romances are 
Agatha Dehhen and her friend Mole. Wolff. They united their 
talents, and have very ably painted the manners of their country in 
the stories of " Sarah Burgehaert," "William Levend," "The 
Letters of Abraham Blankaert," and " Cornelia Wildschut." Eliza- 
beth Post and Petronilla Moans are writers of the same style of work. 
The " Moral Tales," " Suzanne Bronkkorst," and some historical 
romances, from the pen of Loosjes, deserve notice. 

It is a singular fact, that, among the Dutch, who appear so grave 
and heavy, satirical works have been produced with very great suc- 
cess as a species of general literature. This talent owes its success 
to a bitter, biting power of language, that is difficult to translate ; 
but, in justice to this people, we must add that, if they bite without 
pity ; they are only severe against what deserves punishment, and 
never offend against decency or truth. 

Among the philologists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centu- 
ries, we must mention Spanheim, Jansson, Perizonius, Gronovius, 
Cuper, Bosj Sallengre, Clericuss, Busman, Havercamp, Draken- 
borcli, Paio, Oudendorp, Duker, Wesseling, Hemsterliuis, Van Len- 
ncp, Valhiaer, Ruhnkenius, Saxius, Luzac, Bosch, Wyttenbacli. 
All this talent is a proof that money is not the only species of riches 
among our worthy neighbors. 

Both in Holland and in Belgium, there are now several superior 
annuals published, and a constant series of well-written travels : in 
short, to prove that they keep pace with all the neighboring nations 
(however little those nations may know of them), they have not only 
attempted, but have succeeded in producing, excellent historical 
novels. In Belgium, Henry Conscience has been the successful 
author of "The Year of Wonder," "The Lion of Flanders," 
" Hugo Van Craenhove," and "Sketches of Flemish Life," besides 
a collection of legends, tales, and reveries, and a " History of Flan- 
ders." Many of these works have been translated into various 
other languages, and have procured for their author a name among 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 245 

the best writers of the present times. John tie Laet has been a 
strenuous friend to the revival of Flemish literature, and associated 
all his energy with that of Conscience to arouse the nation to a re- 
membrance of their former exalted place in European letters. Be 
Laet has written several historical romances of deserved repute, as 
" The House of Weserubeke," " The Crusader/' " Destiny/' " The 
Polar Star/' and has most ably conducted a journal at Brussels. 
He has more than once evinced both profound thought and learning 
in his publications in support of the national talent, and is looked 
upon as one of the ablest and most influential authors of his country. 
These are Belgian writers, for we must now look upon the northern 
and southern provinces as distinctly two nations. 

" A Narrative of the History of Bruges" has been written by 
Gaillard. Schnitzler has written a history of Russia. Jouanin 
and Gavar have unitedly written a history of Turkey. Van Buehel 
has taken a romantic story of 1096 for a poem. Dijk and Van 
Spall are poets of Holland. It must be added, in conclusion, that, 
notwithstanding the cold, formal looks of the Dutch, no nation pos- 
sesses a larger collection of poetry for the people, the wit and gayety 
of which, however, are somewhat gross. This is another contradic- 
tion to the decided piety and real moral worth of the generality of 
those very people who delight in listening to and in singing them. 
The following is a list of works that may be further consulted on 
the literature of the Low Countries: Resume de l'Hist. de la Lit. 
des Pays Bas, by Reiffenburg ; Bibliotheque Belg., by Foppeus; 
Mem. sur la Lit. des Pays Bas, by Paquot; Hist. Dutch Poet., by 
De Vreis; Abridg. of the Hist, of the Dutch Lang., by Yprey ; 
Diet. Anthol. by Witsen Gry sleek; Soirees Hist, by Van Wyn ; 
Merite des Hollandais, by Chollot d'Escury; Parnass. Lat. Belg., 
by Hoznft; Life of the Belgic Latin Poets, by Peerlkamp: these 
two are in Latin. The National Library at Paris contains a rich 
collection of the Dutch poetry and Dutch theatre, arranged by the 
learned Van Praet; also a second collection, arranged by Van 
March, especially devoted to the theatre. 

It is well to remark that the literature of Friesland is one of sin- 
gular individuality, but of which little is known out of the country. 
" The History of the Prisons" was written by a native of the coun- 

21* 



246 DANISH LITERATURE. 

try, Sufreid Petri, in 1527. The most brilliant period of this 
literature was the seventeenth century, when Gysbert Jalzobs, or 
Japiex, lived; who, in his enthusiastic national feeling, taught his 
native tongue to the librarian of the Earl of Arundel, and opened 
the way to our own archaeologist, George Hicks. The poems of 
Jahohs were published in 1801, from the edition of 1681. Profes- 
sor Rash, of Copenhagen, published, in 1825, the first grammar of 
the Frison language. 



. THE LITERATURE OF DENMARK. 

Denmark has long possessed all the advantages which, a dense 
population can afford; and though her splendid situation at the en- 
trance of the North Sea and the Baltic has not been turned to the 
utmost advantage, she has still profited not a little by the great 
streams of commercial intercourse which are so constantly flowing 
through the Sound and the Little Belt. Elementary education is 
carried to a wide extent throughout the Danish dominions; the 
civilization of the towns is remarkable, and literature gives abund- 
ant evidence of intellectual aptitude. 

It is said that, seventy years before Christ, a Scythian, named 
Frigg, appeared in the Scandinavian nations as a descendant of 
Wodin, or Odin, the hero of more remote times, who was worshiped 
as a god among them. This Scythian embodied in himself alone 
the talents and authority of warrior, conqueror, legislator, priest, 
king, and poet. It is to him they impute the invention of the 
Punic, characters used in their most ancient inscriptions. In the 
ninth and tenth centuries, the Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians, 
under the name of Normans, ravaged Europe. In the middle of 
the tenth century, Harold of the Blue Tooth, King of Denmark and 
Norway, was conquered by Otho I., and by him converted to Chris- 
tianity. In the commencement of the eleventh century, Canute the 
Great conquered England. It was at the conclusion of the twelfth 
century that Sueno Aageson wrote an abridged " History of the 
Kings of Denmark, from the year 300 to 1186." This work was 
published by Steplianius in 1642. But Norway, once forming a 






TWELFTH CENTURY. 247 

line appendage to the Danish crown, is now irrevocably united to 
Sweden ; and, as forming a part of the great Scandinavian penin- 
sula, it seems a more natural division of country. The Danes and 
Norwegians now draw a broad line of deniarkation ; the great men 
of one country are no longer claimed by the other ; and the insti- 
tutions, both social and political, are showing every day more ob- 
viously those differences and distinctions which grow out of the 
contrasted position in which the two nations have been placed. 
The history of Holstein and of Schleswig is one of stirring interest; 
in all the annals of freedom no more touching episode will be found 
than the struggle of the Ditmarshers to preserve their independ- 
ence. All that pity has listened to of suffering, all that poetry has 
celebrated of valor, will be found portrayed in their story. There 
is a singular branch of literature connected with Denmark, which 
is profoundly interesting, and deserves our first attention on account 
of its antiquity. I allude to those extraordinary productions which 
develop the ancient Scandinavian mythology; and which, while the 
greatest part of Europe was involved in darkness, threw a remark- 
able brilliance over the inhospitable regions of Iceland. They in- 
fluenced Denmark for many ages, and still continue to influence the 
literature of the northern nations. In order accurately to under- 
stand and appreciate the state of letters in north-western Europe, 
even at the present moment, it would be highly desirable to follow 
the stream of Icelandic civilization into the languages which are to 
be traced to that parent source; but the theme is far too extensive 
for this work, and branches into too great a variety of topics. The 
Scandinavian chronicles communicate instruction respecting the say- 
ings and doings of the northern race; introduce us to their pri- 
vate and public concerns, to their habits and institutions; their 
courageous adventures ; their expeditions to the more southern parts 
of Europe; their undoubted discovery and early knowledge of Ame- 
rica, long before Columbus, who had probably first heard of this 
existing continent in the two voyages he made to Iceland; we may, 
indeed, perceive their action on English civil polity. The Icelandic 
poetry is the source of all the poetry of the north; its tongue reigned 
in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway; it is the language of the Scalds, 
their talc-tellers, and of their Runic inscriptions. The same Ian- 



248 DANISH LITERATURE. 

guage exists among the northern Irish and among the Scottish isles ; 
but the German tongue advanced step by step into the Scandinavian 
countries; and then the Icelandic idiom retired, in similar degrees, 
to the monasteries of Skalhalt. It is only through the formal Latin 
of the Danes that we have obtained this knowledge of the Icelandic 
literature. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the Danish 
government deputed Torfesen to collect these manuscripts ; — a col- 
lection which was published by Eesen in 1665, who also gave a dis- 
tinct copy of the system of Runic mythology, as given in the 
poem called the " Edda." This poem had been in the possession 
of the Icelanders since it was collected by Sturhon, supreme judge 
of Iceland, in 1192. It has excited the attention of learned men 
of all ages, and has been the source of a great number of works of 
genius; for it is one continued sketch of the ancient manners and 
religious ceremonies of the northern nations, conveyed in that pri- 
mitive Ossianic language which is so poetical; and it is well to re- 
member that it is from Iceland's learned men that we possess the 
first specimens of European literature, after the Druid bards had 
ceased to exist. Of these, Isleif, the first bishop of Skalhalt, was 
consecrated in the middle of the eleventh century. He had been 
educated at Erfurth, and carried the taste of letters into Iceland; 
but his works are lost. Soemuncl Sigfussen is considered the com- 
piler of the " Edda" rhythmical, as it is called, in distinction to the 
" Edda" in prose. Ari-Hhm-Frodi is the oldest of the Icelandic 
historians; there is only a part of his work preserved. Haal Taits- 
son was a bishop of the twelfth century, whose knowledge was re- 
markable, but his works are lost. Gissur Halsson was author of a 
work called " Flos Peregrinationis." Brand Jonsson was another 
learned bishop. Snorro Sturhon, or Sturlasson, was editor of the 
prosaic part of the " Edda," and of two poems, entitled " Voelus- 
paeh" and " Havanal." The history of the kings of Norway, 
called " Heimskringla,"* is divided into Sagas, or chronicles : of 
which the first, or " Yulinga Saga," contains the history of the an- 
cient mythology of the north. The Sagas succeed each other from 

* This Chronicle has been translated into English, with an excel- 
lent commentary, by S. Laing, Esq., already mentioned in this work. 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 249 

Odin to Halfdan the Black, cotemporary with Charlemagne, and 
have been continued by different authors to 1223. Olav-Sicitas- 
SJcalld and Sturla-Hinn-Frodi were nephews of Sturlson, and both 
men of talent. The latter, it is said, wrote the history of his family 
under the title of the " Sturlunga Saga." Christian II. saw the 
progress of church and scholastic reform. The government of 
Frederic II. was distinguished by the firm establishment of the 
Lutheran creed. It is one of the consequences of a government 
like that of Denmark that literature is chiefly occupied with the 
chronicles of departed times. Thus, there are numerous archaeolo- 
gists of distinguished merit in Denmark, while few writers are to 
be found who have added anything to the sum of moral and poli- 
tical knowledge. Denmark could be scarcely said to know Christ- 
ianity till the time of Canute the Great, in 1014; and the first 
school formed in the north of Europe was by Ansgard y a monk at 
Hamburg, in the twelfth century ; in the thirteenth, we find one 
mentioned at Lund and another at Odensee. It was then that clois- 
ters began to multiply, and a certain degree of knowledge was more 
widely diffused; then, too, the spirit of disputation on sophistries 
and subtleties began, and the middle ages of Denmark were per- 
petually thus employed; till at last the University of Copenhagen, 
which had been founded by Christian I., was left without professors, 
or even a director, for several years; and it only rose up from this 
annihilation at the time of the Reformation. 

In the mean time, the people had their favorite popidar ballads 
as a never-wearying resource for their amusement; but it is not 
easy to say to what period these vigorous and original effusions may 
be referred. They are formed of a poetry at once masculine, rich, 
and abundant. For some time, the wits of Denmark and the learned 
despised them; but the day has arrived when this sonorous harp 
has been again listened to : these ballads have been collected by 
Rahbek; the voice of olden times has again resounded in the land 
of the Scalds; and Denmark need not envy either the canzones of 
the Spanish or the minstrelsy of the Scotch. 

In the midst of the wandering life of the Normans, they still 
found time for poetry : they loved it, and cultivated it by oral com- 
munications. In winter, when they returned from their far off ex- 



250 DANISH LITERATURE. 

peditions, they delighted in detailing their perils and their success. 
Like the Germans, they had deified the heroism of the warrior, and 
their position in life required that this idea should he carried to its 
utmost length. The paradise of these pagan warriors was a ban- 
queting hall, which they named the Valhalla ; and the ministering 
attendants were the spirits of women who had deserved the warrior's 
love. These spirits were called Valkyries. Thus, the ardor of en- 
thusiasm for distinction in war was greatly promoted by the women 
of these countries ; and their ballads constantly refer to these an- 
cient mythic remembrances. 

One of the most laborious of the learned men of this country is 
Lang, known better as Saxo Grammaticus : his knowledge of lan- 
guages appears to have been very great; and his " History of Den- 
mark" is noted for its research. But it is especially his work on 
the primitive idioms of the northern languages which has distin- 
guished him, and his notes on the Popular Ballads. Vedels repub- 
lished them in 1594. 

During the middle ages, the learned men of Denmark, as in 
other countries, found occupation in discussing the opinions and 
subtle distinctions of doctrine which distinguish the writings of 
those whom we call the fathers of the church (who, as Luther ob- 
served, direct their attention, not to those principles which should 
correct, instruct, and console the human creature, but to sophistries, 
which must inevitably bewilder the finite intellect of man) ; and, 
in the mean time, a powerful movement was preparing in Germany. 
The cry of rebellion against the sovereign authority of Home had 
resounded at the gates of the universities; the right of free examina- 
tion had been proclaimed; the Eeformation had begun. The human 
mind awoke here, as elsewhere, from its lethargic sleep, and the 
flame which consumed the bull of the pope in the streets of Witten- 
berg, indicated a new era, to which all eyes were turned. In 1550, 
the Bible was translated into Danish, and became the favorite read- 
ing book of the people. Shortly after, those anomalies called Mys- 
teries and Moralities in other countries, or Scripture subjects dra- 
matized, appeared in Denmark. The earliest national poet was 
Arrehoe, Bishop of Trondjhem, who wrote a poem called the "Hex- 
ameron/' but who fell into the puritanical weaknesses of his age. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 251 

One of his poems is called "Plague Powder, such as all God's 
People may take;' 7 a kind of title very common for books in Eng- 
land in Cromwell's time. Count Ranzau had written a "Catalogue 
of the Emperors, Princes, and Kings, Protectors of Astrology,'' 
with other works, and various minor poems. Bartolinus was re- 
markable for his medical works. Torfens wrote history. The 
poetry of the Danes did not wait for any reform of language to 
manifest itself; it preceded the reform, and contributed to its birth. 
The "Proverbs in Verse" of Laaland were followed by a crowd 
of other productions, and were more than a century anterior to the 
fixed construction of the language by Pontoppidan ; who, however, 
far from assisting the language, has left nothing but Latin writings. 
Schenedorf was the author of the "Patriotic Spectator." Kraft 
was a distinguished prose writer, whose best work is written on 
" The Ideas and Manners of Savage People." A historical chroni- 
cle, by Hultfdd, appeared : feeble and awkward, it can scarcely be 
called a history, but is curious as a monument of the language. 
Bording, the editor of the "Danish Mercury," was looked upon as 
a respectable poet, and is placed by the German critic Wieland in 
his collection of writers at this epoch. Thomas Kingo is the Dr. 
"Watts of Denmark : he is considered one of the best lyric poets of 
this country; his psalms and devotional songs have been lately re- 
printed. His brother Nicolas wrote a poem on the history of the 
kings of Denmark. These writers died at the opening of the 
eighteenth century. Shested wrote agreeable descriptions of country 
in verse. Helt is supposed to be the author of many of the favorite 
songs of the people. 

What was wanted in Literature was made up in Science at this 
period. Astronomy had cast a brilliant light over the north; and 
the celebrated Tyclio Brake not only shed an eternal lustre over his 
country, but it is well believed that both Newton and Kepler, and 
many of their successors, are indebted to him for opening their 
minds to the perception of the great truths which subsequently 
dawned upon them. Sorterup wrote a collection of satirical poems 
and other works; Reesenberg was also a satirist of talent, and wrote 
various poems ; Falster had more biting power in his satirical verses 
than either of the above, but was less witty than Reesenberg. It 



252 DANISH LITERATURE. 

was not, however, till the eighteenth century that the first great 
planet of literary genius arose on the Danish horizon. ITolberg, 
whose name and writings are venerated and idolized as are those of 
our Shakspeare, was born at Bergen, in Norway, and is regarded as 
the creator of the Danish school of literature. His talents were 
various, his learning considerable; his more serious writings were 
most welcomed by his countrymen, but his spirit seemed most to 
revel in the regions of wit and fancy. His " History of the Reform 
in Denmark" ranks first, and then his "Picture of Ancient and 
Modern Denmark;" "The Subterranean Yoyage of Nicholas Klim" 
was one of his most successful satires, and has been translated into 
many of the modern languages; indeed, so strong was Holberg's 
perception of the ludicrous, that, in treating of the great points of 
history, it frequently led him astray. He wrote also a comic-heroic 
poem called " Peer Paars," being the history of an honest merchant 
of Callundberg going in search of his betrothed. At length, RoTbcrg 
discovered the true bent of his genius ; and, applying himself to the 
drama, has left to his country as rich a supply of comedy as any 
other country of Europe can boast. His pieces are short representa- 
tions of home characters, and written with all the humor of our own 
Aristophanes, Foote. That entitled "The Pewter-pot Maker" had 
an immense success, and has become a proverb in his country : every 
one who has the vanity and ambition of wishing to leave his sphere, 
is immediately named "The Pewter-pot Maker." Holberg was 
created a baron, and died greatly esteemed. At the same time, 
Tullin was drawing attention to his productions by their sweetness. 
The harmony of his compositions was a new discovery for the 
patriotic feeling of his country; and the wonder is, not that Tullin 
should have met with so much success, but that the singular aptitude 
of the Danish language for poetical melody should not have been 
developed before. His poem entitled "May-day" was, in fact, the 
first of May to the young poesy of his country; and a few years 
after this production, his two poems of "Navigation" and " Creation" 
obtained the prizes of the university. Schoening is an esteemed 
historian. His best work is entitled " First Ages of the Norwegian 
People." Rotlie is the author of "Historical Reflections," and 
"Effect of Christianity upon the Condition of the People of Eu- 






EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 253 

rope." Birkner aided education 'with his pen. SuJun is one of 
the most celebrated of the northern historians. Ho has written the 
following works: " Character of the Eighteenth Century;" "Intro- 
duction to the Critical History of Denmark;" "Dialogues" in 
imitation of Lucian; "A Defence of the Danish Comedy;" "Lite- 
rary Essays;" "A Series of Historical Romances;" and various 
minor works. Zetlitz wrote descriptive poems. Weyer was a young 
poet of great promise, hut who died at an early age. Wessd had 
somewhat of the comic power of Holberg: Wessel was the most 
amusing companion in the world; but his want of order and of 
economy threw him into perpetual difficulties, and the gayety and 
carelessness of his character passed into a proverb. He has left two 
small volumes of epigrams and droll stories, and expended the rest 
of his genius on a periodical publication, often recalling the grace 
and playfulness of Lafontaine. It was in these periodicals he pub- 
lished one of the best, the cleverest, and most charming of parodies, 
named "Love without Stockings :" it is full of wit and gayety of the 
most brilliant kind; a satire on the French theatre, whose pompous 
declamation and emphatic style had struck Wessel as frequently 
ridiculous. At the time this parody was composed, the Danes had 
to fear the influence of the doctrines of Gottsched; and already 
their own writer Brunn, in his divers poems, had shown how much 
an imitation of the French might lead them astray from their 
national taste. But the Danish monarch invited the German poet 
Klopstock to his court, and this favor gave a decided inclination to 
imitate the writers of that country in preference. 

At the death of Frederic V., the Danish poet Ewald received the 
crown of the university. This writer is one of the most perfect of 
lyric poets. The national song of Denmark, entitled "King Christ- 
ian by the Mainmast stood," is one of his boldest effusions. Eivald 
was also the writer of the first national tragedy, entitled "The 
Death of Beldor;" also "Ralf Krage," a drama; and tried his pen 
in comedy; but his great excellence was always in the lyric style. 
His odes are celebrated, and the elegies of "Hope" and "Remem- 
brance" are beautiful. EwalcVs fate was that of the pure child of 
song. The world had disdained his humble abode, and yet thronged 
round his grave; indigence had pursued him for forty years, and 
•29 



254 DANISH LITERATUEE. 

fortune came to smile upon his tomb ! He had been a soldier, like 
Cervantes; unfortunate, like Tasso; and poor, like Camoens: he 
was, like them, exalted and glorified after his death. Sander wrote 
comedy at this time. 

In the days of Denmark's prosperity, when the rest of Europe 
was more or less influenced by the French Revolution, her mer- 
chants enjoyed a neutrality which greatly favored the kingdom- 
The poets obeyed the sense of security which filled all minds, and 
their lyrics had a joyous, humorous tone. Storm was successful as 
a comic fabulist; the Danes have ever been peculiarly partial to the 
ludicrous. 

Tode cultivated the Danish literature with success, and wrote 
comedies, fables, epistles, and stories in that language, though he 
was a native of Hamburg. Baden was author of the "Critical 
Journal," and contributed much to the purifying of the language. 
Guldbcrg is author of a "History of the World." Seidelin and 
Bastholm aided in the progress of education. Oh/sen has written 
some good comedies, as " The Golden Box." Thaarup is known 
for his comic operas; of which "The Harvest Home" and "Peter's 
Wedding" are well known in our own country. Professor Thaarup 
also wrote many beautiful serious lyric pieces. "Dyveke" was 
written by Samsoe, and is a tragedy of high reputation. Then 
appeared Pram and Rahbek : the former wrote an epic of some 
worth, entitled " Staerkadder," and commenced the first literary 
journal, under the title of "The Scandinavian Museum." This 
was succeeded by "The Journal of Truth;" and, later, Ralibch 
published his "Spectator," and Molbech his "Athengeum." These 
have been followed by the "Prometheus" of (Ehlenschldger ; but 
at present most of these journals have disappeared to make room 
for the "Monthly Review" of Reitzel. Ralihek, whose name was 
mixed up for more than fifty years with the literature of his country, 
first wrote a number of articles on the drama, under the title of 
"Letters of an Old Comedian," and gave lectures on literature; he 
then helped in the editorship of "The Minerva;" and, after having 
modeled his mind and style on those of our Addison, put forth his 
"Danish Spectator." This journal, which he directed fifteen years, 
is one of his best works : it is there that he has placed all the fruits 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 255 

of his studies and all the results of his observations. He made of 
his u Spectator/' also, a sort of arena, where the poets of the day 
were pleased to contend for public approbation. Ralibeh was named 
Director of the Theatre of Copenhagen, and put in practice all the 
theories he had formed for turning the stage to a powerful means of 
correcting the morals of the people : it was through him that the 
German works of Goethe and Schiller became known to the Danes, 
and that the people learned to prefer Shakspeare to Gottsched; and 
it was then that the tragedies of CEliIenscMclger were received with 
delight by his countrymen. Ralibeh died at the advanced age of 
seventy-three, leaving a deep regret in the hearts of all who had 
known him, and a vacancy in literature which it was difficult to fill. 
He died in the humble abode which he has described so charmingly; 
and where he represented himself and his wife as passing the tran- 
quil life of the aged, contented with their modest fortune and their 
peaceful home, smiling at the guest who entered, and the friend who 
would sit down quietly beside them. This is a most charming pic- 
ture for contemplation, after so busy and tumultuous a life as that 
of a theatrical director appears to be in our own country ! As a 
poet, Ralibeh had only second-rate talent; but it was amiable, if I 
may so say, and gay; reflecting the happy confidence of a life with- 
out storms, and the chaste emotions of an upright mind and warm 
heart. As a critic, his observation was just, his judgment clear, 
and his soul honest. He was gifted with a pliability of mind singu- 
larly useful in his position, and published a quantity of biographical 
notices and dissertations. He translated and commented on several 
foreign works. With the assistance of Nyerup, he collected mate- 
rials for a literary history of Denmark, and became the editor of 
Holberg. In a word, he ran from one point to another, as occasion 
required, discussing with tact, and warring, when necessary, with 
firmness and perseverance. Fahen was a distinguished author of 
comedies. He wrote a great variety of operas also, and the tragedy 
of "Niels Ebbensen." Hertz has written a poem called " Israel 
Delivered," in which he has successfully introduced the hexameter. 
Malte Brun made himself a European name by his profound studies 
and publications in geography. At an early age, he was a remark- 
able poet and journalist; but having too openly espoused the cause 



256 DANISH LITERATURE. 

of the liberty of the press and the freedom of the peasantry, he was 
exiled, and passed an active and useful life in Paris. 

As a cotemporary, Baggesen gained great repute for his poems. 
He became the favorite of the fashionable world, which may account 
for the polish of his verses, and alas ! also for their futility and pre- 
tension. While Baggesen was visiting other countries, the war be- 
tween the Romanticists and Classicists began in Denmark; and Bag- 
gesen, on his return, could not decide to which he would belong. 
Meanwhile, the British fleet appeared off Zealand, Copenhagen was 
besieged, the Danish shipping was destroyed; but this poet showed 
no sympathy with his country's calamities. He wrote so lightly, 
that it might be said he smiled at his country's wounds; and, in 
consequence, he lost the admiration of his countrymen, and went 
to hide his dissatisfied spirit in France. Here he remained, till the 
approach of death gave him a longing to see his native land, which 
he has very beautifully expressed in some fine verses. His chief 
works are a collection of poems entitled " Daufauna," in which is 
an epic called "Thora/' "Holger," "Erik Ejejod," and the " La- 
byrinths." 

In 1804, the early poetic efforts of (Elilenschldger were recom- 
pensed by the prince royal with a pension; these talents had been 
developed by the lectures and philosophical knowledge of the worthy 
Henry Steffens, who was, till lately, a professor at Breslau. He 
came to Denmark full of the enthusiasm of the German new school 
of poetry, and first made the nation acquainted with the writings of 
Goethe, unveiling those workings of thought and sentiment which 
had produced such rich and beautiful results. These lectures made 
the deepest impression upon (EhlenschUiger, and this enthusiastic 
admiration of Goethe's works first opened the vein of thought in 
the rich mind of (EhlenscMager, and led his fancies to the highest 
ranges. To the fire and vigor of old romance he brought the ex- 
quisite polish of civilization; and he has gloriously placed the lite- 
rature of Denmark on a level with that of the most cultivated in 
Europe. At the house of Madame de Stael, in Switzerland, the 
young poet found a splendid reunion of German authors; and it 
was here that he penned the greater part of his most beautiful tra- 
gedy of " The Death of Correggio," which has been entitled the 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 257 

brightest jewel in his poetical coronet. Though this play is based 
upon the simplest and most tranquil elements, it is one of no ordi- 
nary originality and beauty. Southern imagery and southern feel- 
ings — the pure inspiration of the art, and the even tenor of an 
innocent and domestic life — have been caught by the poet with the 
same distinctness and grace with which he had already depicted the 
scenery and passions of the north. "Palnatoke" and "Hakon 
Jarl" had already appeared; "Aladdin," "Axel and Waldberg," 
with various others, followed. There are great delicacy and sweet- 
ness displayed in the female characters depicted by (EJdenscJddger, a 
circumstance which always proves his high sense of moral beauty. 
His minor pieces bear much of the tone and manner of Goethe, 
especially a collection entitled " The Gospel of the Year." The 
name of (Elileiischlager has taken its place among the brightest 
earth has known. 

At the present time, Ingemann and Andersen are the chief poets 
in Denmark. Ingemann is called the poet of the ladies; his verses 
are in the highest degree sweet and flowing, and his lyric composi- 
tions possess very considerable merit. Andersen's Novels and Tales 
have met with such favor in England, where most of them have 
been translated, that he may almost be said to have become indige- 
nous in this country. Wysse is noted for his sacred writings. Rosen^ 
lioft, Welhaven, and Molbech are poets of the present day. Moller 
is a critic. Rudleback is a theological writer, as also Engeltoft, 
Rothman has written diplomatic history in Latin. The name of 
(Erstedj in connection with electro-magnetism, is of European fame. 
Intellectual activity is kept up at this day by many excellent pe- 
riodical works and many well-ordered literary societies; the transl- 
ations of which are published carefully, and themselves warmly 
encouraged and cheerfully protected by the government. The most 
important journal is published by the brothers Berling : Naihanson, 
its editor, is a man of considerable talent. There are six others of 
various merit. The " Scandinavian Museum" is a good magazine, 
and next to it another, called " The Fruits of Reading." Professor 
Rash, a man of eminent literary attainments as a linguist, published 
Bjom Haldorson's Islandic Lexicon. The Society of Northern 
Antiquarians publishes annually, at Copenhagen, a volume of their 

22* 



258 SWEDISH LITERATURE. 

very interesting annals. The society called The Athenseum was 
established at Copenhagen in 1842; it has a fine library and good 
reading-room. It receives 161 periodicals (of course including 
newspapers); forty-two of which are published in that city : fifty- 
seven are German, twenty French, fifteen English, and one North 
American. During the last year alone, 1178 new volumes were 
added to the library. 

Besides the Novels and Tales of Andersen, above referred to, 
there have been of late several English translations from Danish 
popular tales, which have been received with delight by the lovers 
of light literature. 

The following is a list of works which may be further consulted 
on Danish literature : — 

Bartholin's Writings of the Danes; Worm's Runic Literature; 
Langebecti s great collection, entitled Scriptores Rerum Danicarum, 
vols, i., iv. ; viii. ; Nyeriup's Hist. Tab. of Denmark and Norway. 



; THE LITERATURE OF SWEDEN. 

The development of literature was even later in Sweden than it 
had been in Denmark. The University of Upsal was founded by 
the care of Pope Sixtus IV. in 1476, but it languished for want of 
professors nearly half a century, and did not flourish till a century 
later. The Christian spirit had penetrated only slowly among this 
wild people, but at length it brought a softer aspect among them; 
yet the children of the north, brought up in the independence of 
their mountains, submitted with difficulty to the trammels of their 
monkish teachers. The bishop was frequently the chief warrior of 
his diocese, and led his vassals to the combat. Still, it was pre- 
cisely in the monasteries formed by these southern Christians as 
places of refuge and protection, that learning found its asylum 
until the introduction of printing. The Icelandic tongue was long 
in use at Upsal; the kings who resided there used to call the Scalds, 
or poets, to their court; and even now the language of the Dale- 
carlians bears a strong affinity to that of Iceland. There was re- 
peated the legendary ballad in the great hall of the prince; a mo- 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 259 

nient fondly delighted in by this rude people, and which won them 
to forgetfulness of their hard lives and scanty fare, and taught them 
the beauty of truth and faithfulness. These ballads were collected 
by Afzelius and Geyer in 1814. 

Mixed with these tales, resembling the chivalry of the middle 
nations of Europe, are to be found numerous love stories. It is, 
indeed, singular to observe the predominance of .the affections in 
the writings of the early Swedes. The first monument of the prose 
of Sweden is a letter of six pages, written by a nun of the convent 
of Wadstena, and bearing the date of 1498. At that epoch, the 
general language was not formed; but this letter of sister Ingride 
is far beyond the standard literature of the day. The learned 
Hammersheld places it, for pathos, above the epistle of Heloisa to 
Abelard. 

There is, in the Swedish language, a well-known poem called 
"Vendela," in which the powers of the soul are represented as se- 
parately absorbed by this sentiment of affection ; and a late repub- 
lication of it proves how much the national feelings accord with its 
subject. Gustavus Vasa introduced, with great gentleness, the 
principles of Luther among his countrymen; but Sweden was long 
torn with contending political factions, and instruction of any kind 
made only slow progress. Trolle, the ambitious Bishop of Upsal, 
endeavored to maintain the interests of the kings of Denmark ; and 
Christian II., having been conqueror at the battle of Bagesund, 
came to Stockholm with vengeance in his heart against the unhappy 
nobles; it was at this moment Gustavus Vasa saved his country; 
and the royalty he had won by his courage and firmness, he main- 
tained by his wisdom. Two brothers, Olaiis and Lawrence Peterson, 
were very active in spreading the reformed principles. It was 
Laiorence who translated the Bible into Swedish; and Olaiis who 
first composed pieces for representation before the people, taking his 
subjects from the Scriptures. The result of this epoch was the use 
of the Swedish tongue by the Protestant theologians; and Gustavus 
himself spoke it with peculiar grace. In the mean time, the people 
possessed the finest of all books, the sublimest of all poetry — the 
Bible. The first historical works known in Sweden were by Jan 
Store and his brother Olaiis: these were chronicles in rhyme, and 



260 SWEDISH LITERATURE. 

were compiled at a later date by Olaiis Magnus, who wrote also a 
" History of the Swedes and of the Goths." 

The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries presented a series of 
brilliant facts for history, and a succession of highly remarkable 
sovereigns : Gustavus Yasa, Gustavus Adolphus, Charles X., XI., 
and XII., with Queen Christina, who appeared among these war- 
riors like a statue of science surrounded by trophies of arms. 
Gustavus Adolphus warmly patronized letters, and was himself a 
poet as well as a splendid orator; he left also some memoirs of 
value. During the progress of the reform, Loccenius wrote his 
u History of Sweden." Another Latin author, Messinius, made a 
" Collection" for the history of his country, and wrote fifty historical 
dramas, five of which were played by the young students; proving 
how partial the learned were to the classic Latin. The son and 
grandson of Messinius assisted him in his literary occupations; the 
grandson was guilty of writing a libel against Queen Christina, and 
was decapitated; the father also. Bureus wrote a poem called 
"Nymaerevisor." Tegel wrote his "History of the Kings Gus- 
tavus I. and Eric XIV." at a later period ; and Girs wrote a " His- 
tory of John III." 

Georges Stjernliielm is called the father of Swedish poetry, and 
was the first poet of renown at this time. He introduced the regu- 
larity of the ancients, and his dramatic efforts were stiff and cold. 
His chief work is called " Hercules;" he had considerable energy 
of thought, but little imagination. Taking him from amidst the 
Swedish writers of his age, he appears a remarkable man; but 
when compared with his cotemporaries, Shakspeare, Calderon, and 
Moliere, he is very feeble. DalstJijema translated the " Pastor 
Fido" of Guarini. The impetus given to literature by Gustavus 
Adolphus was continued by his daughter Christina. In her reign, 
the royal palace became an academy, where all the illustrious men 
of Europe, who could be persuaded to leave their country, were 
welcomed. Unhappily, the queen neglected the talents of her 
subjects; so that she was neither esteemed by the natives when 
present with them, nor regretted when she left them. But the 
spirit of emulation had been awakened, and there was soon perceived 
a bold development of intelligence. The works of Queen Christina 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 201 

are entitled "Maxims and Sentences/' "Reflections on the Life 
and Doctrines of Alexander," and " Memoirs." 

Spegel and Rosenhave were poets of this age; the latter wrote 
good sonnets. Spegel was also distinguished for his learning, and 
arranged a dictionary, which has served as the basis of later produc- 
tions. Rudbeh and Linnaeus were among the scientific writers; 
the system published by Linnasus produced a revolution in natural 
history, and it has been extended in Sweden by JSolcinder, Bergius, 
Thunberg, and Sjiarrman. Rudbeh the elder was Bishop of Ves- 
teras, and directed the editions of the Scriptures called the Bible of 
G-ustavus Adolphus. His son Olaus was a celebrated antiquarian, 
and wrote a work on the origin of the Swedish nation, called " At- 
lantica;" the grandson was a philologist, and founder of the society 
of science at Upsal. Swedeiiborg made known his remarkable 
opinions on religion, and founded a sect called "The New Jerusalem 
Church." In experimental philosophy, they have Wallerius, Berg- 
man, Ihre, and Scheeld; who have added new lights to chemistry 
and mineralogy. Polilen, Klingenstiema, Stroemer, and Wargentin 
have made very important discoveries in mathematics. Kryger and 
Fischerstroem have applied the principles of science to agriculture, 
commerce, and industry. 

Verelius, Ola/sen, and Bioern translated the "Sagas" of Scan- 
dinavian histories. Peringskioeld published his archaeological re- 
searches. Goeranson endeavored to interpret "The Edda." Lag- 
gerbring wrote a "History of Modern Sweden." Botin wrote his 
"Essay on the Swedish History," which is distinguished as much 
for order and method as for the information it contains, while the 
style is elegant and rapid. But it was Olaf Dalilin who did the 
most for the Swedish language. He was the preceptor of Gustavus 
III., and created boldly the expressions he wanted. He wrote a 
clear and easy prose, and yet gave a decided proof of his higher 
powers, by the poem of " Swedish Liberty." Among his successors, 
Creutz left a poem entitled " Atis and Camilla," which is still highly 
esteemed. Kellgrenn's lyrics rank among the first of his country- 
men. The odes and epistles of Gyllenborg are characterized by a 
good spirit of philosophy. He has written several tragedies, after 
the French ; and an epic, in which he celebrates the famous pas- 



262 SWEDISH LITERATURE. 

sage of the Belt, which rendered Charles Glustavus master of the 
greater part of Denmark. Hence the three crowns of the arms of 
Sweden. The Satirists of this time were animated : Triewald wrote 
on "Bad Poets/' and Bergerstroem on "The Art of Crawling." 
Dalilln had already tried his pen on a "Eulogy on Folly." Eric 
Brander, or Skjol de Brand, wrote the epic of the "Grustaviad;" 
but neither of these poets has obtained the renown of a Tasso or 
a Camoens. Another poem on the same subject was written by 
Olaf Ceolsius^ who also wrote "Ingeborg," a tragedy. Nbrberg is 
the author of a circumstantial "History of Charles XII. ," which he 
was obliged to send to the queen, Ulrica Eleanor, sister of that 
monarch, as he advanced in the manuscript, and which was also 
examined by a royal commission before it went to the press ! Grus- 
tavus III. protected poetry as a king, and loved it as a poet. His 
was one of the finest minds of his age, and he was one of the most 
correct of its writers; but his French education blinded him on 
some points. He idolized Bacine, and condemned Shakspeare; and 
the dramas he wrote himself bear the seal of the literary principles 
of his preceptors. Until the time of this sovereign, there was no 
national theatre in Sweden; and the king placed so high a value 
on this method of polishing the minds of his people, that, in the 
theatre itself, at Stockholm, there was an apartment reserved for 
him. Here he transacted everything relative to literature, and 
used to say he was here nearer to the Muses than in his own palace. 
The manner in which this monarch condescended to compete for 
the history prize, in the Society of the Belles Lettres, is a proof of 
his ardent desire to keep alive emulation among his subjects. 

About this epoch, a Swedish lady drew the attention of her 
countrymen to her very charming poetical productions. Madame 
Nordenflycht wrote a volume of elegies and epistles, which are 
remarkable for their truth and tenderness. They spread her repu- 
tation far beyond her country, for Gesner, Haller, and Holberg 
have each celebrated her talents. She had retired from the world 
on the loss of her husband, and in this retirement wrote her sweet 
verses. This drew intellectual people to her house, and very soon 
her drawing-room was the focus of the first literary society formed 
in Sweden, for this habit of meeting was continued weekly after 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 263 

tbe death of Mme. Nordenflyclit, under the classical title of u Utile 
Dulci." Elers, Tylas, and Mme. Nordetiflyclxt wrote admirable 
popular songs, which are amongst the most curious productions of 
Swedish literature. 

Soon after, another society was formed at Upsal, and one at Abo, 
in Finland. 

It was natural for the youth of Sweden to imitate the literary 
ta'ste of their king ; and we find Oxenstheim writing a fine ode on 
the death of Gustavus Adolphus, and another on "Hope," with 
two poems, entitled "Morning," and "The Storm." These are 
considered equal to Gesner's idyls. Hallmann and Kexell enlivened 
the public with their dramatic parodies. Enwalson imitated the 
French operas. Alderbeth translated Horace and Virgil. Tliorrild 
was distinguished as a critic; and Ehrenswoerd became illustrious 
by his observations on the arts. Hallenberg wrote the "History of 
Gustavus Adolphus." In this epoch, also, was a distinguished 
writer of Bacchantic songs; a style of poetry which is exceedingly 
popular in the cold regions of the north. This is Bellmann, one 
of those happy, gifted beings, who do everything they wish; at 
once a poet and musician, he gained and richly deserved the title 
of "The Anacreon of Sweden." A monument is erected to his 
memory in the great park at Stockholm. Lidner was the tender 
poet of this time, and a universal favorite, although his lyrics are 
all sad. He wrote also "The Countess of Spartarse," a good tra- 
gedy. Madame Lenngren's pictures in poetry have given great 
pleasure. Her poems are full of home-born bliss — "Domestic 
Habits," "The Pious Pastor," "The Young Family." A collection 
of legends, called the "Norman-Kiempe-Datur," was published at 
this time. 

The close of the eighteenth century was marked by the produc- 
tions of Leopold, whose "Odin" attracted general notice; and 
"Virginia" raised his dramatic fame still higher. Leopold was the 
last representative of the imitative, or classic school. Stenhamar 
has left some good lyric poems. Choraus has written " Elegies." 
Lilljesthrale is remarkable as a didactic poet. Sylverstolpe was 
much esteemed as a critic, and was author of the " Swedish Literary 
Journal" and " The Manual of Swedish History." 



264 SWEDISH LITERATURE. 

Before we enter on the immediately modern era, it is but just to 
notice that Norway has also her own individual treasures of litera- 
ture, though rare; or, perhaps I ought to say, though we know little 
of them. Their deeds of valor, and songs of independence are, 
however, what we can notice with admiration. Of these last, no 
nation could ever boast more. One, written by a clergyman, named 
Zetlitz, is of the most soul-stirring poetry that ever burst from the 
heart. Many sweet verses have reached us, too, of the tender 
kind ; and Nordalil Brunn has penned some excellent Anacreon- 
tics. Moerh has written the romances of "Thecla," " Adelreich," 
and " Goethilde." The fairy legends of Norway have been made 
known to Europe through the brothers Grimm, of Germany. The 
celebrated antiquary Bishop Nordin lived at this time. 

At the close of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth 
century, one of the Swedes marked out, by his own intuitive taste, 
a new style of thinking and writing. This was Franzen, a native 
of Finland. He tore off the fictitious ornaments of the muse, and 
presented a rustic beauty to his readers, but graced by education. 
His poems are such as one loves to read often; they carry, in every 
page, a dream that seduces, a feeling that moves, a hope that con- 
soles; and the simple purity of the poet's soul is seen in every 
thought. His element was the lyric in its tender style. His 
poem " On the Marriage of Grustavus Vasa" is, however, dull and 
heavy. Syher&tolpe is a clever fabulist. Geijer and Tegner have 
been among the most active of the very modern literati. Hamers- 
hoeld has written three good books — one on "Philosophy," another 
on "History," and a third on the "Modern Literature of Sweden." 
Atterbom is a poet and philosopher ; his " Happy Island" is a pecu- 
liarly pleasing poem. Stagndius was evidently destined for great 
things, but lived only to write two tragedies, called "The Martyrs" 
and "Love after Death." But his profound sentiment of religion 
makes him shine less in the drama than in his odes, which have 
been published under the title of "The Bose of Sharon." The 
" Travels in Syria and Egypt," of Hasselquist, and those of Sparr- 
man in Africa, are valuable. The two most powerful of Sweden's 
modern writers will close our list. The amiable and excellent 
Tegner was Bishop of Wexioe, a small town in the province of Srua- 



NINETEENTH CENTUEY. 265 

lande. Tempering the serious with a happy mixture of innocent 
gayety, Tcjner has become a universal favorite : not a family but 
possesses his works; not a young girl but can repeat the finest pas- 
sages of his poems. Painting, music, sculpture, have all taken pos- 
session of his verses ; and this good man has accomplished what is 
unique in literature — to be loved without envy, and to be praised 
without criticism ! He is the author of several admirable patriotic 
odes, and this sentiment is also beautifully conveyed in his elegies. 
His poem of " The First Communion" is most charming in its simple 
seriousness; "Axel" is a poem of romantic life in the time of 
Charles XII.; but Tegner's master-piece is the "Frithiof's Saga.' 7 
This is one of the most interesting of the romantic chronicles of the 
north, and gives a perfect picture of the manners, popular assem- 
blies, and pagan worship of the ancient Scandinavians. Tcgner 
ought to be classed in the first rank of those men whom we should 
love, because they seek poetry in the emotions of their heart rather 
than in the efforts of their imagination; who create, by their pious 
faith, and their dreams of tenderness, a world full of sweet harmo- 
nies. He has invented nothing ; but in each of his works he is 
always a Swede, always a man of the north ; he has sung with en- 
thusiasm the green mountains, the charming solitudes, and the blue 
lakes of his country ; and, in his pensive reveries, he has been the 
faithful organ of a general thought, an habitual disposition of soul in 
his country. Tegner has an admirable talent of expression; his 
style is pure, clear, rich with images, and cleverly colored: his 
verses are correct, easy, and sonorous. The same harmony of lan- 
guage, the same delicacy of expression, are found in his prose. The 
poem of "Axel" has been translated into English by the Rev. W. 
Latham. Mr. Baker and Mrs. Garnet have each translated the 
". Frithiof 's Saga." 

Geijer, or Guyer, was the founder of the literary journal called 
"Iduna," and has written several minor poems of great strength 
and beauty, also composing the music to which he sung them. He 
has perpetuated the life of those Normans, or men of the north, 
who poured down upon France at one period, and penetrated even 
as far as Paris, in the time of Charles III. He has also written a 
"History of Sweden," which is much valued. 
23 



266 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 

In her encouragement of talent, Sweden has long been an example 
for Europe. Afzelius has written good lyrics. Beskoiv produced 
the tragedy of " Eric XIV.," and wrote lyric poems. Cederborge 
has written the romance of " Trasenberg," and others. Bdlgren is 
author of " Aaron," and other stories. Guyer has made a trans- 
lation of "Macbeth." The tales of Frederica Bremer are known 
to us through Mrs. Hoioitt. The name of Olaf Wallin has reached 
us as that of a poet rising into estimation. Greusemtolf & " Mori- 
anen" is spoken of with admiration. JSaterherg's "Sketches of 
Popular Manners" has excellent feeling. Fryell has added another 
" History of Sweden" to those already known. Jacob Aall, a large 
proprietor of iron mines, was devoted to literature, and, besides 
making contributions to the periodicals, made a G-erman translation 
of Snorre Stiirleson's " Chronicle of the Northern Monarchs." The 
Swedish General Literary Society at Stockholm has an Athenaeum, 
where are sixty magazines, seventy political journals, and a very 
good library. The progress has been immense during the last 
reign. 

The following is a list of works which may be further consulted 
on the literature of Sweden : Scheffer's Literature of Sweden, pub- 
lished at Hamburg, and also his Library of the Northern Men of 
Learning; Gezelin's Essay on the Learned Men of Sweden; Liden's 
Literature of Swedish Poets, continued by Broocman; the Catalogue 
of Walmstadt and Waalmark; Hamerskoeld' 's Essay on Swedish 
Literature; Ludectts Sketch of Swedish Literature. 



THE LITERATURE OF RUSSIA. 

Few subjects can afford more complacent pleasure to the philan- 
thropist than to trace the progressive development of mind, where 
the first rays of twilight break out of long and dreary darkness, and 
the day advances with sure and steady steps. Russia has thus 
emerged from a night of ignorance, to occupy a situation in the 
world of intellect, not contemptible in its actual position of to-day, 
even when compared with that of the southern nations. Peter the 
Great was the first to plan a regular system of education for his 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 267 

subjects. "When lie took the fortress of Azof from the Turks, in 
1696, he caused the first medal ever made in Russia to be struck 
in commemoration of this victory. It is remarkable that, in the 
same year, the first Russian grammar ever published was printed at 
Oxford. But the first book printed in Russia was at the Kremlin, 
in 1564, a century and a half after printing had been introduced 
into the rest of Europe. Among the first mental efforts, we hear 
of a code of laws entitled "Russian Truth," being written by 
Jaroslav. The "Chronicles of Nestor" form the most ancient of 
the histories of this country. The Sclavonic language gave birth to 
that of Russia, which is divided into two parts : first, the Sclavinski 7 
which commences their literature and brings it to Peter the Great; 
and the second, called fiouski, which is the universal language of 
the present day. This is sonorous, varied, and harmonious, exceed- 
ingly rich, and abounding in synonymes, while it is susceptible of 
bold and significant combinations. Printing was first established in 
1553. 

The SclavinsJci is poor, and has few productions written in it. 
The Bible, and the books of the Apostles, by St. Cyrill, and the 
church service, are in the Sclavinski dialect. There are several 
chroniclers whose names have reached us; but the precise period of 
their existence is doubted. Jeorghi, Maharij Kourbsky, and Yovc, 
the first patriarch of Russia, are among them. There were travelers 
also, who detailed their journeys; as Nikitin and Greekoff. Aga- 
tlion, a monk of Novogorod, is said to have made a chronology. 
Rylo, Archbishop of Rostoff, wrote the life of his preceptor, Paph- 
nucius. Kourbsky is said to have written a life of Czar Ivan 
Vassiliewitch, and Yove a life of the Czar Theodore. Theophan 
Pvocopowicz is called the Chrysostom of Russia. 

Under the Emperor Foedor, dramatic poetry cast abroad its first 
light; the preceptor of this prince was the author of several pieces 
played before the court. The students of Kief used to travel through 
the country, representing these dramas and others drawn from the 
Scriptures. 

The poetry of the Russians is that of a highly imitative, deeply 
feeling, but despotically governed people, erected on a language 
which blends something of the wildness of Oriental character with 



268 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 

the sternness and sobriety of European precision. The tone of our 
English literature, with that of the French and German, is very 
distinctly to be traced in their modern productions. Palatsin, the 
companion of the patriots Pozarsky and Minin, wrote a history of 
his times. Nicon wrote a " Religious History of Russia." Sla- 
vianitsky wrote a " Life of the Saints/' and formed a dictionary in 
Greek, Sclavon, and Latin. Theodore Gribo'iedoff wrote a short 
" History of Russia." The Princess Sophia, sister of Peter the 
Great, wrote Tragedies; and the Czar himself left a "Journal of 
his Campaigns," which, with his " Letters," was published by order 
of Catherine II. Demetrius and Tavorscy left ecclesiastical works 
of some value. Kracheninnikoff translated Quintus Curtius, and 
wrote a " Description of Kamtschatka." Nicolas Propofsky wrote 
on Philosophy. 

In the beginning of the eighteenth century, a Cossack, named 
Klimnovsky, wrote "On the Greatness of Soul, and on Truth:" 
this work contains very noble sentiments and much fine poetry. 
Prince Kantimir distinguished himself at this early period of Rus- 
sian literature by his satires and translations. It was in the reign 
of the Empress Anne, that Trediaskovsky, a pupil of Rollin, the 
French historian, made great efforts to obtain the title of founder of 
the Russian literature; but being more a man of science than of 
imagination, he showed no taste, and never became a man of talent. 
Rut it was a young peasant boy, born in the dreary regions of 
Archangel, the son of a simple sailor, who was to have the honor 
envied by his predecessor. Lomonossoff, devoured by the fever of 
genius, abandoned his native cabin, and went, with patient suffering, 
journeying on (supported by his own visions of enthusiasm), to 
throw himself at the feet of the Rishop of Moscow, entreating to 
be admitted as a pupil in his institution ; and he was received with 
benevolent kindness, and encouraged in his ardent love of study. 
Astonished at his talents, every care was taken to develop them still 
more : he was sent to study mathematics at Marienberg, and the 
German tongue. When his education was finished, he first turned 
his pen towards science, and wrote on " Electrical Phenomena," 
" On the Origin of Light," and many things of this kind. Then 
he a took to history, and wrote "The Oldest Russian History," 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 2G9 

"Short Russian Annals;" afterwards a grammar, with a work on 
Rhetoric. At intervals, he turned his rich intellect to poetry, and 
wrote first the poem of "Peter the Great," then several tragedies; 
a great many spirited odes; also poems of encomium on the Em- 
press Elizabeth : in short, the works of Lomonossoff were published, 
complete in sixteen octavo volumes, in 1804, and present a rare 
diversity of subjects. But what he is most remarkable for is his 
" Treatise on Eloquence" and his " Rules for Russian Versifica- 
tion ;" so that Lomonossoff was not only the creator of Russian 
literature, but its legislator. A monument, by the famous Russian 
sculptor Martos, has been erected to the memory of this poet at 
Archangel. 

Soumarakoff was the first actor of repute, and traveled both to 
Paris and London to study his art. He returned triumphant, and 
translated Hamlet into his native language, and wrote several 
tragedies. Wolkoff was the second actor of renown. Maikoff 
wrote tragedies and lyric poems. Elizabeth, the intelligent empress, 
greatly encouraged these intellectual pleasures, and gave every 
facility to talent. Her successor, Catherine II., resolved on being 
popular also, and turned her attention equally to literature. She 
invited celebrated foreigners to her court, and corresponded with 
men of the finest talent in Europe; under her reign tragedy con- 
tinued its path with honor. The Empress Catherine has left " Me- 
moirs on the History of Russia;" "Instructions for the Russian 
Code;" " Oleg," a drama; and she translated the ninth chapter of 
Marmontel's story of "Belesaire;" the other parts being trans- 
lated by different members of her court. Barkoff translated Ho- 
race, and wrote a "History of Russia." Simeon translated the 
Psalms into verse, wrote some religious dramas, and a poem in 
praise of the Czar Alexis. Ablessinoff was a dramatic poet. Scher- 
hatoff and Bolttn were historians. Kniazin drew attention by his 
poems of " Dido" and of " Rosslaff," but was an unsparing pla- 
giarist of the French authors. Comedy also tried her wings, and 
rose victorious over every difficulty. Von Vizin seems to have 
taken Moliere for his model, and had great pliancy and ease in his 
style. "The Minor" and "The Brigadier," with "The Spoiled 
Child," are among his best. Griboiedoff wrote the only comedy 

23* 



270 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 

that deserves to be placed by the famous " Minor" of Vizin, but 
unhappily he died young. Petroff translated the .ZEneid, and wrote 
good odes. Golikoff wrote a " History of Peter the Great." 
Efimief wrote comedies. Kriouslwfshy wrote the tragedy of " Po- 
jarsky." Kherassoff was both a lyric and epic poet; fond of his 
country, he sings her glory and the flight of the Tartars. His 
poem, called " The Russiad," contains some very striking passages, 
and has obtained for its author the honorable title of the Russian 
Homer. But a more brilliant poet than all these arose in Derzha- 
vin. "With a powerful mind and an admirable judgment, he even 
surpassed Lomonossoff. His thoughts were sublime, his style cor- 
rect, and his expressions new. He resembles, in some degree, the 
German poet Klopstock : his " Ode on God" is one of the most 
impressive and sublime that poetry ever produced. It has had the 
singular distinction of having been rendered into the Japanese 
tongue, and, by order of the sovereign, was printed on silk em- 
broidered with gold, and hung up in the chief temple of worship 
at Jeddo. This destiny and appreciation awaken a wide range of 
thought and anticipation of future discoveries in the literature of 
those eastern countries, for the same honor was paid to this Russian 
poet by the Chinese. It has been said of Derzhavin, this good and 
great man, that he remained a philosopher even at the foot of the 
throne. He awakened great and patriotic feeling, and belonging to 
no school, was himself the true representative of the Russian poetry. 
Bogdanovitch bears the title of the Russian Anacreon. The soft- 
ness and harmony of the Russian language had never been so hap- 
pily portrayed as in the charming poem of this poet, called u Du- 
shenka;" this word is the diminutive of Dusha (Psyche), and is 
expressive of great tenderness and fondness. The Empress Cathe- 
rine was delighted with it, and sent for the poet to her court, tell- 
ing him she already knew by heart all his graceful story; and 
" Dushenka" became the joy and idol of the nobles. At the re- 
quest of the empress, Bogdanovitch wrote for the stage. . He com- 
posed a piece which represents the festivities of the old Sclavonians, 
with which they welcomed the return of the twenty-fifth year of the 
reign of their great princes. This composition of Bogdanovitch 
made a strong impression, being produced just at the time the em- 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 271 

press had reigned a quarter of a century. He wrote many minor 
pieces, which are full of wit and elegance; and the song "I'm 
Fourteen Summers Old" has become one of the most popular in 
Russia. Kapniste wrote fugitive pieces with considerable talent. 
Bohroff wrote "The Khersonida," a descriptive poem, much in the 
style of Moore's Lalla Rookh, but it has more frequent bursts of 
sublimity. Kostroff made good translations of the Iliad, and of 
Ossian's poems. Neddinshi charmed the lovers of songs and bal- 
lads. Dmitricf pleased the pensive; his style is harmonious and 
energetic, tender and affecting, as the species of poem may demand. 
He was the poet of the drawing-room, and charmed the ladies by 
his graceful melancholy. Muriavieff was the preceptor of the 
Emperor Alexander, and wrote for his noble pupil several clever 
treatises on Russian history; also some " Dialogues of the Dead," 
and imitations of the Spectator, under the title of " The Suburban." 
Under this prince all the branches of literature prospered. He 
instituted six universities, besides an immense number of parish 
schools, and appeared to wish his people to understand that genius 
and talent might raise a man as high as hereditary rank; so that 
the Russians may now place themselves fairly on a footing with 
other European nations. Muriavieff has written a history of the 
Russian church. 

Tragedy threw off the elegiac tone, and took that of terror for 
its moving principle. Ozeroff wrote "Fingal" and "Donskoi," 
which are great ornaments of the Russian stage. The more the 
taste of the public was formed, the more the ear demanded a lan- 
guage of poetic harmony. At length awoke "the nightingale of 
the north," as Karamsin is beautifully called. In his youth, he 
imitated Sterne, but he has outlived, his error, and become famous 
for a clear, concise, and harmonious style in his prose works. Of 
these we must name the " Pantheon of Foreign Literature," which 
was followed by various collections of poems. "A Discourse on 
Happiness" appeared later;, but his great renown is built upon his 
"History of Russia," which is looked upon as the finest literary 
monument of that empire. The style is an example of pure Rus- 
sian idiom, whilst it is lucid, noble, and full of beauty. It is for- 
tunate for the literature of Russia that the most classical of her 



272 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 

prose writers should have employed his pen upon a work of such 
extent, importance, and general interest; thereby transmitting to 
other writers a chaste standard of style, and engaging the attention 
of foreigners by this splendid contribution to the history of his 
country. It has been translated into German, Italian, and French; 
the last of which is noted as being "miserably incorrect." The 
historian Karamsin is said to have himself declared that he had 
discovered two hundred errors in the first volume alone ! Karamsin 
established the " European Courier," and his essays published in 
this journal became the model of fine writing. His poems are 
graceful and effective. 

The Russians have shown peculiar excellence as fabulists; 
Khemnitzer, Kriloff, and Izmailoff are the most noted. He first 
began his literary career in Germany, but is remarkable for his 
perfectly Russian style, his naivety smoothness, and epigrammatic 
wit, most felicitously applied. Kriloff is the most fertile and ori- 
ginal; his fables have had the honor of being imitated by French 
and Italian pens. Four comedies attest his power over dramatic 
composition equally. Prince DolgourouM charmed the public by 
the originality of his poems. 

Zhulwvshi is noted as a translator from German, French, and 
English authors. His version of Gray's Elegy deserves our grati- 
tude; and his own poem, entitled "The Minstrel in the Russian 
Camp," is one of the most popular perhaps of all modern poetical 
productions. It was written when the author formed one of the 
army, just before the battle of Tarutina, and not a line but breathes 
the most spirit-stirring patriotism. Batinslikoff wrote some fine 
essays, and is inimitable in choice of expressions and harmonious 
diction. We have also elegies, epistles, and lyrics from his pen. 
"The Dying Tasso" is a poem of great beauty; and another, en- 
titled "To My Penates," is also a very delightful one. Labanoff 
is a translator from the French of Racine ; Viskovaloff from Vol- 
taire; Kohosclihin from Moliere, as also Pouschkin. Two kinds of 
poetry were still wanting to the literary crown of Russia: the 
ballad, which was introduced by Zliulwsky ; and the comic-heroic, 
which was accomplished by Alex. Pouschkin, whose tales recall the 
delicious follies of Ariosto, Krinkovslcy owes his reputation to the 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 273 

tragedy of " Pozharsky :" it is full of patriotic sentiments and 
poetical beauties. 

Bulgaria opened a path to distinction by the "Historical Ro- 
mances" he has written; and, in conjunction with Gretch, he put 
on foot "The Northern Bee," a journal of decided merit. In 
1829, he published his "Russian Gil Bias," and the following year 
his " False Demetrius." 

Gretch introduced into Russia the Lancastrian system of educa- 
tion; and wrote a useful work, entitled "Russian Literature." 

The success of Bulgarin in the line of novelist opened the path 
to many followers; the rage for imitation has, however, weakened 
the merit of these compositions. The name of Alexander Pousch- 
Mn will reach posterity in his poem of "Pultawa," his tragedy of 
"Boris Godounop," "Rusland and Luidmila," "The Prisoner of 
the Caucasus," as well as "The Gypsies" and "The Robbers," all 
of which bear unequivocal marks of superior talent. Ozeroff gave 
great dignity to the tragic muse in "Gidipus," "Polyxena," and in 
" Fingal." In his delineations of the female character, he is pecu- 
liarly successful. 

Chalwvsky is another of the clever dramatists of this country; 
and, from the tragedy to the vaudeville, his pen has been equally 
successful. Anastasewicz translated from Racine, and is a distin- 
guished prose writer. Chihmatoff wrote the poems of "Peter the 
Great" and "Pozarsky," and has translated Pope's Essay on Cri- 
ticism. Admiral CMsclikoff was for a long time president of the 
academy, and minister of public instruction : he wrote " Dissertations 
on the Ancient and Modern Styles," translated the "Jerusalem 
Delivered" of Tasso, and made important works on the history of 
languages. General Davidoff was a poet, and author of works on 
strategy. The two Glinka were poets, authors of elegies and 
operas. Gneditch has translated "King Lear," and also the 
"Tancred" of Voltaire; besides writing a poem entitled "The 
Birth of Homer," and translating the Iliad. Ilin has written 
dramas. Katenin is a good lyric poet and dramatic writer. 
Khmelnitzky has written "Comedies in imitation of d'Harville." 
Kosloff became blind, and wrote a touching poem on his sufferings. 
3Ierzliakoff translated the "Eclogues" of Virgil, the "Idylles" of 



274 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 

Mdme. Deshoulieres, and the "Jerusalem Delivered" of Tasso. 
Olin is author of two elegies. Basile Pouschkin was the author 
of fables and good lyrics; Alexis Pouschkin, translated the "Tar- 
tufe" of Moliere, and the " Joueur" of Regnard. Yoeykoff has 
written some remarkable "Letters/ 7 and made translations from 
Delille, besides writing a poem entitled a The Arts and Sciences." 

The prose writers have been very successful of late years, both as 
clever journalists and novelists. Gogol's " Mirgorod" is intended 
to portray the manners of the middle classes. Zagoskin followed 
the same path, with better success; " Miloslawsky," or Russia in 
1612, has for its basis a most interesting portion of history, when 
Minin and Pozharsky rescued Russia from the Polish yoke. An- 
other of Zagoskm's works takes the epoch of 1812 as the subject; 
but all that he can say of imaginative difficulties falls far short of 
the reality yet dwelling in our memories; and, consequently, the 
book reads tame. There is a satire of great repute to be yet named. 
JSenkovsl'j/ wrote "The Devil's Grand Levee," which is a critique 
on all ranks and sexes. Among the writers of Russia whose career 
has closed during the last twenty years, we have to mention Ililonqff, 
a lyrical satirist; Gortshukov, a writer of dramas and satires; Oze- 
i-elzkovsky, who translated Sallust, and wrote on natural history; 
Grammatin, a philologist; Beketojf] who translated the "Messiah" of 
Klopstock; Bronerski/, a writer of history and geography; Eutusoff 
and Melesky, poets; Ismaeloff, a novelist, and his brother Alexander, 
a clever fabulist; Baron JDelvig, Sokoloff, Yenevitinoff, and Yojehoff, 
poets. ZernoffYfas celebrated as a jurisconsult. Golojfnui wrote 
travels. Guodnitcli translated Homer. Broncvsky left "The Let- 
ters of a Russian Officer." Anna Bunina translated Blair's Ser- 
mons. Platon was a distinguished theologian, and Metroj) also. 

We must remark that Delvig's poems are considered the orna- 
ment of the Russian-G-erman school; and of the immediately modern 
poets of Russia, we may class Chuhovsky, Botuschkoff, and Yaseind-y 
together, as one supplying the defects or weakness of the other ; 
thus, the first has the German mind, the second has the Italian 
objectiveness, and the third has the French tone. In the same 
manner, we observe Alex. Pouschkin for the objective, Bcua- 
tinsky for the French characteristics, and DcJvig for the German 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 275 

mind, Best insoff was a clever writer of romances, but is surpassed 
by Marlinshi. Odqjevshy has successfully imitated Hoffman's fan- 
tastic imagination. Mdmlle. Kidman is a graceful writer of tales. 
Bald is a writer of national stories and national songs. Kuholnih 
is a very successful writer of dramas. Prince Sologoub is lately 
dead, and much regretted by the readers of interesting romances. 

A fine Encyclopedia has been published; and the government is 
unwearied in its establishment of scientific societies. The Chamber- 
lain, Dcmidoff] set apart the sum of 20,000 rubles, to be given 
away annually in the encouragement of letters; and several other 
nobles have emulated this effort of improvement. A noble school 
was founded by Prince Gcditzin; a Deaf and Dumb Institution by 
Pi ince Iluiski ; magnificent Botanic Gardens by Count Razumou: shy. 
The number of journals is greatly augmented of late, and what is 
peculiarly useful to this country, every administration has its jour- 
nal. Among these, a The Journal of the Minister of Instruction" 
is the most generally interesting. As daily papers, there are " The 
Gazette of St. Petersburg," "The Russian Invalid," "The Cotem- 
porary," "The Son of the Country," "The Literary Library," 
" The Gazette of the Arts," "The Children's Journal," "The Jour- 
nal of Useful Knowledge," "The Friend of Health," and, the best 
of all, " The Northern Bee." All these are published in the Rus- 
sian language, and there are several in French and German. " The 
Northern Bee" is most esteemed for its well-judged criticisms, and 
" The Literary Library" the most dreaded for its satire. Adelung, 
a German by birth, was Director of the Asiatic Academy in Russia 
for many years ; he was one of the preceptors of the present em- 
peror, and assisted Rumanzoff in collecting manuscripts for the 
history of Russia. His " Literature of the Sanscrit Language" is 
much valued. An Indian tale, called "Nal and Damayante," from 
the pen of Clwkovski, has given great pleasure; and " The Heretic," 
from that of Lajetclinilcoff, has also created considerable attention. 
The lyric poems of Woldbruck are esteemed ; and the names of the 
poets Heiberg, BlicJier, Bemkoft, Nabo, and Minna von Maedler, 
are rising into notice : indeed, literary progress is great in Russia, 
and especially as regards translations of works of a useful tendency. 
We have yet to mention that the ladies are making great efforts to 



276 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 

be useful : Mdme. JBounin, Mdme. Poutschoff, Princess Ourouscff, 
Mdme. Briaga, Countess Golovkin, Princess Volkonshy, and Princess 
Galitzin, are all known in literature. Many more names might be 
yet added, but enough has been said to stimulate curiosity and 
excite admiration. Russia has advanced most rapidly, but has yet 
immense difficulties to vanquish before her vast territory shall enjoy 
equally the benefits of civilization and general instruction. There 
are public libraries now in forty-two towns of Russia, and the peri- 
odical publications are daily increasing. "The Gazette of the Arts" 
is illustrated with good engravings. "The Agricultural Journal/' 
"The Russian Farmer/' and "The Shepherd's Journal/' are most 
carefully edited. 

But there is still a branch of Russian literature to mention, and 
one which is peculiarly interesting to the philanthropist : it is the 
national songs — the poetry of the people. These have lately been 
collected by Prince Zerloff; and, though the authors are unknown, 
they are the joy and study of the people, and their consolation in 
the weariness of their winter dwellings, being conveyed from tongue 
to tongue through many generations. "These are no subjects for 
criticism," says Bowring, "for criticism cannot reach them — it can- 
not abstract one voice from the chorus, nor persuade the village 
youths and maidens that the measure is false. You hear them in 
the wooden huts of the cottagers; you are cheered by them when the 
peasant whirls you in his sledge over the frozen snow. The melody, 
often gentle and plaintive, in which they find utterance, visits the 
ear long after it has ceased. They are the delight of millions. The 
fame of the Iliad is nothing to theirs, and the general character of 
tenderness which prevails in them seems often to stamp them with 
the seal of Ossian's genius." 



INDEX 



N. B. — The Names of those Writers we call the Classics are given in Italics. 



Italian tUritcrs. 





THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 




Italian Writers. Born. Died. 


Page 


Alcamo . . . 1190 


16 


Drusi . 






1200 


16 


Falcacchiero 






1200 


16 


Vernacia 






1200 


16 


Thomas Aquinas 






1224 1274 


16 


Guinicelli 






1274 


16 


Malespini 






1281 


16 


Spinello 






1281 


16 


Nina Siciliana 






1290 


41 


Guitone 






1294 


16 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY 



Brimetti 

Cavalcanti \* 

Jacopone 

Ricciardi de' Salvaggi 
Marco Polo . 
Dante 
Cecco . 
Mussato 
Cino 

Andrea Dandolo . 
Gio Villana 
Ortensia di Guglielmo 
Giustina Perotti 
TTberti 
24 





1300 


16 




1300 


16 




1306 


16 




1308 


41 




1318 


17 


1265 


1321 


17 


1257 


1327 


18 


1261 


1330 


18 


1270 


1336 


18 




1345 


19 




1348 


19 




1350 


41 




1350 


41 




1355 


18 



278 



INDEX. 



Italian Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page 


Bartolo 




1356 


19 


Mat Villani 




1363 


19 


Pastrengo 




1370 


19 


Petrarca , . 


1304 


1374 


18 


Boccaccio 


1313 


1375 


19 


Livia del Chiavello 




1380 


41 


Gio. Fior. Pecorone 


• 


1380 


19 


FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 






Pandolfini . 




1400 


19 


Sacchetti 


1335 


1402 


19 


Fil. Villani . 




1406 


19 


Frezzi 


. 


1416 


18 


Buonacorso . 




1420 


21 


Burchiello , 


'l380 


1448 


19 


Cambiatore . 


. 


1448 


20 


Lucrezia de' Medici 




1450 


41 


Valla 




1457 


20 


Poggio Bracciolini 


'. ' 1380 


1459 


21 


Manetti 


1398 


1459 


20 


Luea Pulci . 


. 


1460 


20 


Eneas Sylva (Pius II.) . 




1464 


20 


Cassandra Fidelis . 




1465 


26 


Luigi Pulci 


1431 


1470 


20 


Panorniita . 


1391 


1471 


20 


Bandelli . . 




1475 


30 


Ben. Accolti 




1480 


20 


Ant. Alamanni 




1480 


20 


Filelfo 




1480 


20 


Platina 




1481 


20 


Griustiniana .'■-■'. 




1489 


20 


Poliziano 


1454 


1490 


19 


Bello 




1490 


20 


Bellinconi 




1491 


20 


Lorenzo de' Medici 


1448 


1492 


23 


Boiardo 


1430 


1494 


22 


Pico of Mirandola 


1463 


1494 


21 


Vinciguerra 


. 


1495 


29 


A. Brandolini 


. 


1497 


20 


Baf. Brandolini 




1498 


20 


Savonarola 




1498 


22 


G-aspar Visconti . 


1461 


1499 


23 


Masuccio 




1499 


20 



INDEX. 



279 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



Italian Writers. 
Landino 
Pontano 
Sabbellico 
Alessandra Scala 
Nicolo Corregio 
Strozzi 

Aldo Manuzio 
Spagnuoli 
Verrini 
Bibbiana 
Leonardo da Vinci 
Camilla Guidoboni 
Leo X. 
Augurelli 
Rucellai 
Machiavelli . 
Luigi Martelli 
Navegero 
Castiylione . 
Porto 

Cornazzano . 
Allori 

Sanazzaro . 
Veronica Gambara 
Brocardo 
Tellesio 
Ariosto 
Guicciardini 
Bern. Accolti 
Tarsia 
Mauro 
Berni 
Bino 

Guidicione . 
Firenzuola . 
Ruzzante 
Folengi 
Fortiguerra . 
Victoria Colonna 
Secchi . 
Gaspara Stampa 



Born 


Died. 


Page. 


142^ 


1504 


24 


142€ 


1505 


21 




1505 


24 




1506 


26 




1508 


24 




1509 


22 




1515 


23 




1516 


24 




1516 


24 




1520 


30 




1520 


23 


144£ 


► 1520 


41 


1475 


1520 


25 




1524 


21 


1475 


1525 


27 


1469 


1527 


28 




1527 


24 




1529 


24 




1529 


22 




1529 


24 


1451 


1530 


23 




1530 


24 


1458 


1530 


22 




fl. 1530 


26 




1531 


24 


1482 


1533 


27 


1474 


1533 


22 


1482 


1533 


27 




1534 


20 




1535 


24 




1536 


27 




1536 


27 


1490 


1541 


27 


1480 


1541 


32 




1541 


24 




1542 


29 




1544 


21 


1496 


1545 


34 


1490 


1547 


26 




1547 


24 




fl. 1548 


41 



280 



INDEX. 



Italian Writers. 

E. Piemontese 

Trissino 

Bonfadio 

Dafne di Piazzi 

Tullia d'Aragona 

Gerolama Gastellani 

Lucrezia Figliucci 

Isabella della Mora 

Suor Dea de' Bardi 

Laura Terracina 

Segni . 

Leonora Falletti 

Strapazola 

Lillio Giraldi 

Paulo Griovio 

Beccuti 

Livia Boromeo 

Nardi 

Chiara Matraini 

Nerli . 

Luigi Alamanni 

Casa . 

Yida . 

Yin. Martelli 

Tolomei 

Leonardo Aretino 

Lucia dell' Oro 

Acchellin i 

Scaliger 

Landi 

Egeria di Canossa 

Lucia Albani Avogadro 

Olinipiera Malipiero 

L. Battiferro degli Ammananti 

Virginia Salvi 

Bianora Sauseverino 

Piametta Malespina Soderini 

Bandello 

Cavalcanti . 

Gianotti 

Michael Angelo 

Giambullari 

Grazzini 

Anguillara . 



Born. 


Died. 


Page. 




fl. 1548 


41 


1478* 


. 1550 


27 




1550 


24 



fl. 1550 



fl. 1560 



41 





1550 


28 




1550 


41 




1550 


24 




1552 


24 


'l483* 


1552 


27 




1553 


29 




1554 


41 




1555 


28 




1555 


41 


*1486° 


1556 


28 


1495 


1556 


29 


1503 


1556 


27 


1480 


1556 


29 




1556 


29 


1490* 


1557 


32 


1492 


1557 


29 




fl. 1557 


41 


1466 


1558 


27 


1484 


1558 


27 




1559 


30 




fl. 1560 


41 




fl. 1560 


41 



41 



fl. 1560 


41 


1562 


30 


1562 


30 


1563 


30 


1563 


25 


1564 


30 


1565 


29 


1566 


29 







INDEX. 




28 


Italian Writers. Born. Died. 


Page 


Caro ....... 1566 


30 


Bembo 




1470 1566 


22 


Varchi 




1520 1566 


28 


Luigi Dolce . 




1568 


29 


Lollio . 








1568 


30 


Franco .^ 








1568 


29 


Bern. Tasso . 








1569 


32 


Pavesi 








1570 


29 


Isotta Grumello 








fl. 1570 


30 


Benven. Cellini 








1570 


30 


Tansillo 








1570 


29 


Castelvetro . 








1571 


30 


Cinzio Giraldi 








1573 


30 


Doni . 








1574 


30 


Contili 








1574 


30 


Vasari 




1512 1574 


30 


Adriani 




1513 1575 


28 


Rota . 




1575 


29 


G-ranucci 








1575 


30 


Muzzio 








1576 


29 


Modesta Zozzi 








fl. 1580 


41 


Fabroni 








1580 


30 


Nannini 






1516 


1580 


30 


Corso . 








1582 


30 


Ongaro 








1582 


29 


Castelletti 








1585 


29 


Erizzio 








1585 


30 


Speroni 








1588 


30 


Telesio 








1588 


30 


Salviati 








1589 


30 


Margherita Malescotti 








fl. 1590 


41 


Beccari 






1510 


1590 


29 


Costanza 








1591 


29 


Valvasone 








1593 


29 


Isabella Andreini 








fl. 1593 


41 


Tasso .... 






1554 


1595 


29 


Bargeo 








1596 


30 


Mazzoni 








1598 


30 


Paruta 








1598 


30 


Bruno 








1599 


31 



24* 



282 



INDEX. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



Italian Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Caporalli . 
Ammirato . 




1601 
1601 


31 
33 


Giustiniani . 




1603 


31 


Lodovica Collalto , 




fl. 1605 


41 


Ber. Davanzati . f. 




1606 


28 


Torelli . 




1608 


31 


Buonarelli . 


1556 


1608 


31 


Lucrezia Marinella 




fl.1611 


41 


Gruarini 


1537 


1612 


31 


Veneranda Cavalli 




fl. 1613 


41 


Boccalini 




1613 


33 


Porta .... 




1615 


31 


Sagredo 

Baldi .... 




1616 
1617 


30 
31 


Vecchi 




1620 


31 


Bellarmino . 


1542' 


1621 


34 


Binuccini 




1621 


31 


Sarpi 
Marini 


'. 1569° 


1623 
1625 


32 
31 


Beni . . . 


1552 


1625 


33 


G-uidicione . 


1570 


1630 


33 


Davila 


1570 


1634 


32 


Tassoni 


1565 


1635 


32 


Bigi . . . 
Lalli . . 


1552 


1637 
1637 


22 
31 


Chiabrera . 


; 1553' 


1638 


31 


Franeesca Farnese 




fl. 1638 


41 


Galileo . . . 


'. 1564 


1641 


31 


Bentivoglio (CardiiiaT) . 
Fer. Pallavicino . 


1579 


1644 
1644 


32 
31 


Buonarotti . 




1646 


31 


Buomattei . 




1647 


33 


Toricelli 




1647 


33 


Margherita Costa . 
Gwlio Strozzi 


1590' 


fl. 1650 
1654 


41 
41 


Sforza Pallavicino 




1667 


33 


Loredano 




1669 


33 


Nani .... 




1671 


33 


Salvator Rosa 




1673 


32 


Lanra Ghirardelli . 




fl.1675 


41 


Baldinucci . 




1681 


33 



INDEX. 



283 



Italian Writers 


Born. 


Ferrari Family 


I6l8 


Anna Caruso 




Dottori 




Bartoli 




Beverini 




Segneri 




Fran. Redi . 





Died. 


Page. 


1G82 


28 


fl. 1685 


27 


1686 


31 


1686 


33 


1686 


33 


1694 


33 


1698 


33 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Menzini 

Bellini 

Filicaja 

Magalotti 

Gnidi . 

Marchetti 

Emilia Orlandini 

Faustina Forli 

Eutopia Tosini 

Gravini 

Zappi . 

Virginia Bazzani 

Aurora Gaetani 

Elena Ricoboni 

Maria Buonacorsi 

Giovanna Carriera 

Faustina Zappi 

Maria Strozzi Odalpi 

Maria Borghini . 

Luisa Bergalli 

Prudenza Capizucchi 

Stampiglia . 

Crescimbeni 

Bianchini 

Gaetana Paperini . 

Petronilla Paolini 

Lazzarini 

Fontanini 

Manfredi 

Campaillo 

Fagiuoli 

Vico 

Perfetti 





1704 


34 




1704 


34 


1642 


1707 


33 


1637 


1711 


32 


1650 


1712 


34 




1714 


34 


■ 


fl. 1716 


41 


1664 


1718 


34 


1667 


1719 


34 




fl. 1720 


41 



fl. 1725 



fl. 1726 



41 



41 





1726 


34 


1662* 


1729 


33 


1662 


1729 


34 




1730 


42 


1668 


1734 


35 




1736 


34 


1674 


1739 


34 


1668 


1740 


34 


1660 


1742 


34 


1688 


1744 


34 


1680 


1747 


34 



284 






INDEX. 






Italian Writers. Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Giannone 


. . . . 


1748 


34 


Muratori 






. 


1750 


33 


Becelli 








1750 


34 


Zeno . 






1668' 


1750 


34 


Francesca Manzon 


'. 






fl. 1750 


42 


Maffei 






1675 


1755 


34 


Spolverini . 








1762 


34 


Algarotti 






1712 


1764 


35 


Anderlini 








1765 


34 


Frugoni 






1692* 


1768 


34 


Mazzuchelli . 






1707 


1768 


34 


Yalaresso 






1686 


1769 


34 


Lami . 








1770 


34 


Stellini 






1699* 


1770 


34 


Pariati 






1665 


1773 


34 


Ganganelli . 






1705 


1774 


32 


Corilla Olimpica 








fl. 1775 


42 


Salandri 






1723* 


1777 


34 


Rodilla Amedea 






t . 


fl. 1779 


42 


Augusta Picoliniin 


i 






fl. 1780 


42 


Metastasio . 






J.698 


1782 


34 


Filangieri 






1752 


1788 


37 


Chiari 








1788 


35 


Baretti 






1719° 


1789 


34 


Paolina Grismoridi 








fl. 1790 


42 


Goldoni 






'l707* 


1793 


34 


Beccaria 






1735 


1793 


37 


Tirahoschi . 






1746 


1794 


34 


Calsabigi 






1715 


1795 


35 


Mattei 






1742 


1795 


34 


Pietro Verri 






1728 


1796 


37 


Maria Luisa Cicci 






fl.1796 


42 


Parini 






'. 1729* 


1799 


38 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



Diodata Roero 


fl. 1800 


42 


Amarilla Etrusca . 


fl. 1800 


42 


Bandini .... 


1800 


38 


Barotti .... 


1801 


37 


Alberti .... 


1801 


38 


Battacchi .... 


1802 


38 


Federici .... 


1751 1802 


38 



INDEX. 



285 



Italian Writers, 



Alfieri 

Passer oni 

Fabbroni 

Vianelli 

Albergati 

Count Saviol 

Soave 

Carlo Gozzi 

Bregolini 

Ceretti 

Cesarotti 

Lanzi . 

Piynotti 

Denina 

Laniberti 

Count Giovio 

Bovelli 

Bossi . 

Signorelli 

Galfo . 

Signorelli 

Bosetti 

Alessandro 

Minzoni 

Mazza 

Avellani 

Zanoja 

MoreUi 

Armelli 

Bondi 

Manzi 

Lorenzi 

Moscati 

Count d'Elci 

Carpani 

Rossmini 

JJgo Foscolo 

Bossi . 

Pindemonte 

Bosselini 

Monti 

Crioja . 

Vitorelli 

Count Giraud 



Ver 



Born. 


Died. 


Page 


1794 


1803 


36 


1713 


1803 


34 


1723 


1803 


38 




1803 


38 


1728' 


1804 


38 


1729 


1804 


38 


1758 


1806 


38 




1806 


36 


1722 


1807 


38 


1736 


1808 


38 


1730 


1808 


37 


1732 


1810 


38 


1734 


1812 


39 


1731 


1813 


34 


1750 


1813 


38 


1784 


1814 


38 




1814 


38 


1777' 


1815 


38 


1731 


1815 


38 


1724 


1815 


38 




1815 


38 


1772 


1816 


38 


1741 


1816 


37 


1734 


1817 


38 


1740 


1817 


38 




1817 


38 


1752* 


1817 


38 




1819 


38 




1820 


38 


1745 


1821 


38 


1783 


1821 


38 


1732 


1822 


38 


1710 


1824 


38 


1754 


1824 


38 


1752 


1825 


38 


1758 


1827 


38 


1777 


1827 


39 


1755 


1827 


40 


1753 


1828 


39 


1765 


1828 


38 


1759 


1828 


37 


1767 


1829 


39 




1835 


38 


1779 


1835 


40 



286 



INDEX. 



Italian Writers, 
Sgricci 

Countess Albrizzi 
Arici . 

Count Leopardi 
Botta . 
Silvio Pettico 
Manzoni 
Micali 
Nicolini 
Roinagnesi . 
Grossi 
Perticari 
C. Antonio . 
Nbta . . -_ 
Rossi . 
Jos. Yisconti 
Casti . 
Mauriani 
Carreri 
Berchet 
Marclietti 
Romani 
Sestini 
RufFa 

Ventignano, Duke of 
Campagna . 
Gasgallo 
Baldachini . 
Malpiero 
Virgilii 
Parzanese 
C-uerrazzi 
Yarese 
Bazzoni 
Gantu 
Touracelli 
Zirardini 
Canizzarro . 
Tommaseo . 
Teresa Albarelli Vordoni (of Verona) 
Caterina Bortoloni Condet (of Padua) 
Adele Curti (of Milan) 
Cecilia de Luna Folliero (of Naples) 
Caterina Ferrucci (of Narni) . 



Born. 


Died. 




1836 


1760* 


1836 




1836 


1796 


1837 


1766 


1837 


1789 


1844 



INDEX. 



287 



Italian Writers. Born. 

Massini llosellini (of Florence) 
Giuseppa Guacci Nobile (of Naples) 
Elvira Giaurpieri (of Florence) 
Laura Mancini Oliva (of Naples) 
Giulia Molino Colonibani (of Torino) 
Chiara Morroni Bernabo Silorate 
Giuseppina Poggiolini (of Milan) 
Isabella Rossi (of Florence) . 
Angela Scacerni Prosperi (of Ferrara) 
Rosa Taddei (of Naples) 
Giuseppina Turrisi Colonna (of Pa 

lermo) .... 
Angela Veronese Mantovani (of 

Treviso) .... 



Died. 



Page. 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 
42 

42 

42 



Spanisl) tltttcrs. 



SIXTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. 



St. Isidore 
St. Julian 
St. Eulologe 
Othman 



636 


45 


690 


45 


782 


45 


912 


45 



ELEVENTH CENTURY. 



Moslema 
Bent Aisha . 
Aboulvalid . 
Kasradgi 
Aboulkassem 
Zaidun 
Azadita 
Ben Ganah . 
Gassani 



1007 


45 


1009 


45 


1012 


45 


1013 


46 


1070 


46 


1070 


46 


1095 


46 




46 




46 



Saidi Ali 
Aben Pace 



TWELFTH CENTURY. 



1106 

1138 



46 
46 



288 

Spanish Writers. 
Kaisi Abunassar . 
Roschd Averboes 



INDEX. 

Born. 



Died. 


Page. 


1140 


46 


1198 


46 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 



Berceo 










1211 


48 


Omar 










1219 


46 


Gemaleddin 










1274 


46 


Abul Hassan 










1275 


46 


Alphonso X. 










1284 


47 


Zaniora 










1299 


47 


Loaysa 










1299 


47 


Abbe* Antonio 












47 


Abb6 Nicolas 












47 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 



Lakamita 








1308 


48 


Raimond Lulli 








1315 


48 


Djaeddu Abu 

Juan Buyoz (of Hita) 

Fahrun Abram 








1318 
1350 
1359 


48 
48 
48 


Juan Manuel 








1362 


48 


Catib Mahomet 








1374 


48 


Leo the African . 








1380 


48 


Ayala . 








1397 


48 


FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 






Clavijo 
Villena 






1407 
1434 


49 

49 


Santillana . 




1398 


1456 


49 


Juan de Mena 




1412 


1458 


49 


Rodrigo of Zaniora 




1407 


1470 


47 


Valera 






1482 


49 


Pulgar 
Haro . 








1486 


49 
49 


Badajoz 
Gruevara . ' 










49 
49 


Ladron 










49 


Acuna 










49 


Cota . 










49 


Juan de Hoz 










50 



INDEX. 



289 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



Spanish Writers. 




Born. 


Died. 


Page 


Christ. Columbus . . 1441 


1506 


51 


Castillo 






1507 


51 


Ximenes [Cardinal) 
Perez de Oliva 




1437 


1517 
1533 


51 
51 


Garcilasso 








1536 


51 


Vives . 






1492' 


1540 


58 


Boscan 








1543 


51 


Juan de Enzinas . 








1545 


49 


Peretius 








1545 


51 


Juan Yaldesso 








1546 


50 


G-arces 








1547 


52 


Gomara 








1552 


53 


Mejia . 
Las Casas . 






1417 


1552 

1566 


53 

57 


Gil Polo . 








1572 


51 


Luis Vives . 








1575 


58 


Mendoza 








1575 


52 


Herrera 






1500 


1578 


52 


Ocampo 
De Rojas 








1578 
pub. 1579 


53 
50 


U Acuna 








1580 


52 


Cueba . 








1582 


58 


St. Theresa Avila 








1582 


53 


Cetina 








1584 


52 


Malon 








1586 


53 


Luis de Granada 








1588 


53 


Cruz . 








1589 


53 


Gonzales Molina 








1590 


60 


G-aribai 








1590 


53 


Luis Ponce de Leo 


n 




'. 1527 


1591 


52 


Ercilla y Zuniga 
Castillejo 
Matamores . 






1540 


1595 
1596 


55 
52 
53 


Cano . 










53 



Zarate 
Siguenza 
Argensola 
25 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



1565 



1601 


53 


1606 


53 


1613 


58 



290 


INDEX. 






Spanish Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page 


Cervantes 


1547 


1616 


53 


Zurita 


1537 


pub. 1616 


53 


Fran. Figueroa 


1540 


1620 


59 


Mariana 


1537 


1624 


53 


Herreras Tordesillas (Ant.^) 


1565 


1625 


59 


Gongora . 


1561 


1627 


. 58 


Guillem de Castro 




1630 


58 


G-er. de Alcala ' . 


1563* 


1632 


59 


Espinel . . 


1544 


1634 


59 


Lope de Vega 


1562 


1635 


54 


Virves 


1586 


1635 


59 


Naharro ... 




1635 


55 


Moncada 


1572 


1635 


60 


Coloma 




1637 


60 


Montalvan 




1639 


56 


Quevedo 


'l580 


1645 


59 


Aguilar 


1570 


1650 


59 


Roxas 




1650 


62 


Suarez Figueroa . 


1586 


1650 


59 


Borja y Aragon 


1580 


1658 


59 


Nieremberg 


1590 


1658 


60 


G-racian 


1591 


1658 


60 


Rioja . 


1660 


1659 


59 


Juan Lugo . 




1660 


58 


Villegas 


1595' 


1669 


58 


Rebolledo . . . . 


1587 


1676 


59 


Sellez, or Molina 




1680 


61 


N. Antonio . 


1617' 


1684 


60 


De Solis 


1610 


1686 


60 


Calderon de la Barca . 


1600 


1687 


60 


Miguel Molinos . 


1627 


1696 


62 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Condanio 

Feijoo 

Luzan 

Reynoso y Q 

Armesto 

Larramendi 

Father Florez 

Burriel 

Velasquez 



1709 


62 


1726 


62 


1730 


62 


1730 


62 


1730 


62 


1762 


63 


1763 


63 


1764 


63 


1764 


63 



INDEX. 



291 



Spanish Writers. 
Sedano 
Nic. Moratin 
Ciscar . 
Cadalso 
Caldaza 
Lardizabal . 
De La Isla . 
Yriarte (Thomas) 
Ulloa (Antonio) . 
Lampillas 
Mohedano . 
Garria de la Huerta 
Munoz 
Rod. Castro 



Born. 




Died. 


Page 




pub 


. 1768 


63 


1697' 




1780 


62 






1781 


63 






1782 


63 






1782 


63 




pub 


.1782 


64 






1783 


63 






1794 


63 


1716 




1795 


64 


1739 




1798 


63 






1798 


63 






1798 


63 






1799 


63 


1739 




1799 


63 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



Martin Ulloa (nephew) . 


. 


1800 


64 


Bustamente 




1800 


64 


Cavanilles . 


1745 


1804 


64 


Sanchez . 




1806 


64 


Fajardo 




1806 


64 


Florida Blanca 


1728 


1809 


65 


Samaniego . 


1742 


1809 


64 


Countess Montijo . 




1809 


65 


Capmany 


. 


1810 


65 


Count de Cabarrus 




1810 


66 


JoveUanos 


. 


1811 


64 


Cienfuegos . 




1812 


65 


Masdeu 




1817 


65 


Valdez 


1754 


1817 


63 


Apececha 




fl. 1820 


67 


Arjona Roldan 


176l' 


1820 


67 


Llorente 




1821 


65 


Amat (Don Felix) 


1750' 


1824 


67 


Castro (Francisco) 


1771 


1827 


67 


Leandro Moratin 


1760 


1828 


64 


Bermudez de Castro (Jose) 




fl. 1830 


68 


Duran 




fl. 1832 


68 


Arnao 




fl. 1834 


67 


Carvjal 


1753' 


1834 


68 


Clemencin 


1765 


1834 


68 


Floran 




fl. 1834 


68 



292 



INDEX. 



Spanish Writers 
Arriaza 

Castro (Orozeo) 
Hermosilla . 
Blanco White 
Hervas 
Tapia 

Marina . - 

Campomanes 
Quintana 
Lardizabal . 
Galliardo 
Savinon 

Martinez de la Rosa 
Garostiza 
Quintana 
Clavigero 
Treuba Cosjoy 
Breton de los Ilerreros 
Bermudez de Castro (Salvador) 
Burgos 

Amat (Don Firmin) 
Calderon (Serafin) 
Donoso Cortes 
Escosura 
Espronceda . 
Florez Estrada 
Frias (Duke of) 
Galliano 
Gallego 
Gutierrez 
G-arelli 
Gil . 
Gil y Zarate 
Hartzenbusch 
Jerica 
Larra 
Lista 
Madrazo 
Maturana 
Maury 
Mesonero 
Miiiano 
Mora 
Miraflores 



Bom. 


Died. 


1770 


1837 


1808 


fl. 1837 


1771 


1837 


1775 


1841 



INDEX, 



293 



Spanish Writers. 




Born. 




Died. 


Page 


Morales Santisteban .... . . 70 


Pacheco 










70 


Pastor Diaz 










70 


Piilegrin 

Pena y Aguayo 

Duke of Rivas (Saavedra) 

Roca de Togores . 










70 
70 
70 
70 


Quiroga 
Samoza 










70 
70 


Toreno 










70 


Vega .... 
Zorilla 










70 
70 


Gonzales 










70 


Capman . 
Mandroza 










70 
70 



|)ortugu£0e tUritersf. 



SIXTH TO FOURTEENTH CENTURIES. 



Abul Valid . 

Abu Amran 

Recesvindo . 

Abdala Rada 

Alphonso (Heiiriquez) 

Don Matheos 

Santarem 

Don Diniz . 

Don Pedro Barcellos 

Abu Dulvazatin . 

Abdelmalek Badrun 

Hermiguiez 

Coelho 



1139 

1279 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 



Vasco Lobeira 

Griraldes 

Durate 

Das Regras . 

Azurara 



558 


72 


604 


72 


684 


72 


1051 


72 


1185 


73 


1282 


73 


1321 


73 


1325 


73 


1354 


73 


. 


72 




72 




73 




73 


1403 


73 


1407 


73 


1438 


74 


1442 


74 


1460 


74 



25* 



294 

Portuguese Writers. 
Marias 
Alphonso V. 
Fernando Lopes . 
Ribeyra (Bernardo) 



INDEX. 

Born. 



Died. 

1470 
1481 



Page. 

73 
73 

74 
74 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



Pereira Pacheco . 




- 




1503 


75 


Caiado 








1503 


75 


Falcam 








1503 


75 


Albuquerque 






1452 


1515 


74 


Albegaria da Costa 








1517 


75 


Jorge Resende 








1517 


74 


Magellan 








1521 


74 


Pina . 








1521 


74 


Vasco da Gama 








1524 


74 


Tieve . 








1536 


74 


Nuno da Cunha . 








1539 


75 


Bandara 








1556 


74 


Galvam 








1557 


75 


Gil Vicente 








1557 


74 


Miranda 






1595' 


1558 


74 


Castanheda . 






1529 


1559 


75 


Montemayor 






1520 


1562 


75 


Goes . 








1567 


75 


Ferreira [Antonio] 






1480 


1569 


75 


Barros 








1570 


77 


Gaspar Polo 






'. 1516 


1572 


75 


Prestes 








1572 


77 


Oriente 








1572 


77 


Brandam 








1572 


77 


Moraes 








1573 


77 


Mello de Souza 








1575 


75 


Andreo Resende 








1575 


77 


Don Sebastian 








1578 


77 


Camoens 






1524 


1579 


75 


Osorio 








1580 


77 


Averio 








1580 


77 


Mendez Pinto (Fe 


rn) 




*1508 


1580 


77 


Thome 








1582 


77 


Caminha 








1589 


77 


Lisboa 








1590 


77 


Martyres 








1591 


77 



INDEX. 



295 



Portuguese Writers. 



Bom. 



Chiado Ribiero 
Pirez (Sebas.) 
Bernardes . 
Cortereal 



Died. 


Page. 


1591 


77 


1592 


77 


1593 


77 


1593 


77 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



Lucena 








1600 


77 


Arraiz 








1600 


77 


Ct. Vimioso 








1606 


77 


Lobo F. (Rodrigut 


») 




1580 


1607 


78 


Mariz 








1608 


79 


Leam . 








1608 


79 


Tovar . 








1614 


78 


Soto Mayor 








1614 


78 


Veiga . 








1614 


78 


Monteiro 








1615 


78 


Machado 








1615 


78 


Gonz. Andrade 








1615 


78 


Mauzinko 








1615 


78 


Diego Couto 






1652 


1616 


79 


Brito . 








1617 


79 


Barbosa (Agostind 








1617 


79 


Teixeira 






1543 


1620 


79 


Feo . 








1627 


79 


Luiz Souza 






1573 


1627 


79 


Gabriel Castro 








1632 


78 


Ceita 








1633 


79 


Coutinho 








1634 


78 


Sylveira 








1636 


78 


Ant. Brandam 






'. 1584 


1637 


79 


Pitta . 








1640 


78 


Rollein 








1648 


78 


Pinto Ribeiro 








1649 


78 


Faria e Souza 






'l590' 


1649 


79 


M. Vasconcellos 








1649 


79 


Saverim de Faria 








1655 


79 


Mascarenhas 






1595 


1656 


78 


Freyre 






1597 


1657 


79 


Semedo 








1658 


79 


P. Andrada* 






1576 


16(50 


78 


Man. Thomas 








1665 


78 


Galhegos 






. . 


1665 


78 



296 



INDEX. 



Portuguese Writer! 
Don Mello {Fran.) 
Cardosa 
Esperanza . 
Sister Pimental 
G-us. Soares 
Bait. Tellez 
Gromes 
Lobo Serram 
Rib. Macedo 
Fran. Macedo 
Ceo ( Violante) 
Viera . 
Lopez Cabral 
Fernando Menezes 



Born. 


Died. 


Page 


1610 


1666 


79 


1606 


1669 


79 


. 


1670 


80 


, 


1671 


82 


1616 


1675 


78 


1595 


1675 


80 




1675 


78 


1583' 


1678 


75 


1618 


1680 


78 


1596 


1681 


78 


1601 


1693 


82 


1608 


1697 


80 


1634 


1698 


80 


1614 


1699 


80 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Monteroyo 








1670 


1705 


80 


Lima 




1680 


1709 


80 


Lesbio 




. 


1709 


80 


Gaetano de Souza 




1674 


1729 


80 


Da Costa (Victor.) 




1674 


1730 


81 


Dos Reys 




1690 


1738 


80 


Ct. Ericeyra (F. X.) 




1673 


1743 


80 


Bar. Machado 






1743 


81 


Antonio Jose 










1760 


81 


Dos Reis Quita 










1770 


80 


D'Oliveira 










1772 


81 


Garcam 










1772 


80 


Vieira 










1772 


81 


Rinialho 










1772 


81 


Carvalho 










1772 


81 


Dias Gomes 










1772 


81 


Luis Verney 










1772 


81 


Countess Vimeiro 


1773 


81 


NINETEENTH CENTU 


RY. 




Bar. Duboccage . . . 1768 


1803 


81 


Domin. Torres .... 


1809 


82 


Sylva Da Cruz . 1732 


1809 


82 


Do Nascimento 








1734 


1819 


82 



INDEX. 



297 



Portuguese Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page 


Fran. Manocl .... 1819 


82 


Bap. Gomes 






1820 


82 


Correa da Serra 






1833 


82 


Ant. Castilho 








82 


Al. Ant. Grarrot 








82 


Mendes Leal 








82 


Ig. Pisarro 








82 


Ped. Mesquitella 








82 



(Sermcm lUritere. 



Ulpliilas 



360? 



83 



NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES. 



Ottfried of Weissemburg 
Walafrid and Wandulbert 
G-odeschalk and Haymo 
Iso of St. Gall . 
Solomon of Ramschag . 
Waldram of Strasburg . 
Rhoswitha . 







840 


83 






fl. 849 


83 






fl. 868 


83 






871 


83 






891 


83 






906 


83 






980 


83 



ELEVENTH CENTURY. 



Witichind 

Ditbmar 

Notker 

Adelbold 

Lambert 

Bruno . 

Willeran 

Hepidanus 

"Wilhelm of Herschau 



1002 


84 


1018 


84 


1022 


84 


1027 


84 


1077 


84 


1085 


84 


1085 


84 


1088 


84 


1091 


84 



TWELFTH CENTURY. 



Veldeck 

Wernher 

Zazichoven 



1190 


84 


1159 


84 


1194 


84 



298 



INDEX. 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 



German Writers. 
Von der Aue 
Ofterdingen 
Eschenbach (Wolf.) 
Reinbot von Dorn 
Freydank 
Enekel 

Eiko von Rapschow 
Rod. von Anse or Ems 
Otto IV. Count Bottenlaube 
Henry of Anhalt 
Conrad von Hohenstaufen 
Ulrich von Lichtenstein 
Duke of Misnie 
Duke of Breslau 
Conrad von Wiirzburg . 



Bom. 



Died. 


Page 


1201 


84 


1207 


84 


1212 


84 


1230 


84 


1240 


84 


1250 


84 


1250 


85 


1250 


85 


1254 


85 


1267 


85 


1268 


85 


1272 


85 


1288 


85 


1290 


85 


1290 


85 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 



Regenbogen 

Hadloub 

Trymberg 

Frankenstein 

Hornek 

Meissen 

Ammenkausen 

Munchen 

Reidesel 

Behaim 

Mayenburg . 

Reinhard of Westerberg 

Fleck 

Tauler 

Muglin 

Herfort 

Quinfurt 

Suchenwirth 

Heinrick Teichner 

Prof. Frankenstein 



1294 



1300 


85 


1300 


85 


1300 


85 


1301 


85 


1315 


85 


1318 


85 


1337 


85 


1340 


85 


1341 


86 


1343 


86 


1349 


86 


1350 


85 


1350 


86 


1361 


86 


1369 


86 


1371 


86 


1382 


86 


1394 


86 


1395 


86 


1397 


86 



INDEX 



299 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 



German Wi 


iters. 






Bom. 


Died. 


Page 


Tillman 


. 


86 


Bucheler 










1400 


86 


Neuenstadt . 










1410 


86 


Windier 










1411 


86 


Turinger 










1420 


86 


Rothe 










1434 


86 


Windek 










1434 


86 


Andreas 










1439 


86 


Wolkenstein 










1449 


86 


Rosenpliit 










1450 


86 


Nydhart 










1456 


86 


Furtner 










1468 


86 


Guttenberg . 








1400 


1468 


87 


Hans Folz . 










1470 


86 


Ringolfinge . 










1472 


86 


Steinhoevel . 










1475 


86 


G-aspar Roen 










1475 


86. 


Weber 










1476 


86 


Bremgarten . 










1478 


86 


Schernberg . 










1480 


86 


Lirar 










1480 


86 


Schilling 










1480 


86 


Reichenthaller' 










1483 


86 


Albrecht von Eye 










1485 


87 


Hagen 










1490 


87 


Botha 










1492 


87 


Stein • . 










1493 


87 


SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 




Celtes .... . 1508 


88 


Geiler von Keiserberg 




1445 1510 


88 


Bebel . 




1516 


88 


Sebastian Brandt . 






1454 1520 


87 


Reuchlin 






1455 1522 


88 


Hutten 






1488 1522 


88 


Al. Durer . 






1471 1528 


88 


Baumann 






1529 


87 


Ct. Nuenar . 






1530 


88 


Zwinglius 






1484 1531 


89 


Pfinzing 








1481 


1535 


87 



300 



INDEX. 



German Writers 




Born. 


Died. 


Page 


Greff ... 


1535 


87 


Turnmayr 






1466 


1535 


88 


Thomas Miirncr 






1475 


1536 


87 


Kantzoio 






1499 


1542 


88 


Sebas. Franck 








1545 


88 


Luther 






1483 


1546 


88 


Bugenhagen 






1485 


1558 


89 


Melanchthon 






1498 


1560 


8B 


Musculus 






1497 


1563 


88 


Grlareanus 






1488 


1563 


89 


Conrad Gessner 






1516 


1565 


88 


Agricola 






1492 


1566 


89 


Tschudi 






1505 


1572 


88 


Xylander 






1532 


1576 


89 


Hans Sachs 






1494 


1576 


87 


Ayer 








1590 


88 


Fischart 






1539 


,1590 


88 


Camerarius . 








1594 


88 


Mic. Neander 








1595 


88 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



Paul Schede, Melissus 
Rollenhagen 
Peter Denais 
Taubman 
Albertinus 
Arnd . 
Boehme 
Buxtorf 
Kepler 
Zinkgraff 
Opitiz . 
Flemming 
Belinkhaus 
Stettler 
Helmont 
Kinkhart 
Wecherling 
Andrea 
Clai . 
Schoeh 
Werder 



1539 


1602 


89 


1542 


1609 


89 




1610 


89 


1565 


1613 


89 


1560 


1620 


90 


1555 


1621 


91 




1625 


89 


1564* 


1629 


89 


1571 


1630 


90 


1591 


1635 


90 


1597 


1639 


90 


1609 


1640 


90 


1567 


1642 


90 




1642 


91 


1577' 


1644 


90 


1586 


1645 


90 




1651 


90 




1654 


90 




1656 


90 




1657 


90 




1657 


90 



INDEX. 



301 



German Writers. 



Uarsdoerfer . 
Dack . 
Schruppius . 
Grypli 
Moscherosch 
Griffensohn . 
Bucholz 
Olearius 
Paul Gerhard 
Sckeffer 

Hojjiman swaldau 
Neumark 
Birken 
Lohenstein . 
Zesen . 
Major . 
Piiffendorf , 



Born. 


Died. 


Page. 




1658 


91 




1659 


90 


1610* 


1661 


91 


1616 


1664 


90 


1600 


1669 


90 




1669 


91 




1671 


91 


1600* 


1671 


90 


1606 


1676 


90 




1677 


90 


1618* 


1679 


90 


1621 


1681 


90 




1681 


91 


1635 


1683 


90 




1685 


90 


1634* 


1694 


91 


1632 


1694 


91 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Spener 
Leibnitz 
Gunther 
Thoniasius 
Fabricius 
Elias Schlegel 
Kruger 
Mylius 
Mosheim 
Brawe 
Kleist 
Gottsched 
Baumgarten 
Abbt 
Wolf . 
Winhelmann 
Gellert 
Rabner 
Schiebeler 
Hartmann 
Crusius 

Haiti/ 

Broitinger 
26 



(A. T.) 



1635 


1705 


91 


1646 


1716 


93 


1695 


1723 


92 


1655 


1728 


94 


1668 


1736 


94 


1718 


1749 


91 


1722 


1750 


92 


1722 


1754 


92 


1695 


1755 


94 


1738 


1758 


92 


1715 


1759 


92 


1700 


1760 


91 


1714 


1762 


94 


1738 


1766 


94 


1679 


1766 


93 


1707 


1768 


93 


1715 


1769 


91 


1714 


1771 


91 


1741 


1771 


92 


1752 


1775 


92 


1715 


1775 


94 


1748 


1776 


92 


1701 


1776 


92 



302 



INDEX. 



German Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page 


Holler 


1708 


1777 


91 


Salzer .... 


1720 


1779 


94 


Sturz .... 


1736 


1779 


94 


Lessing 


1729 


1781 


94 


Goetz . «."■'■■•• 


1721 


1781 


92 


Lange . . . . 


1715 


1781 


92 


Iselm .... 


1728 


1782 


98 


Lichtwer 


1719 


1783 


94 


Bodmer 


1698 


1783 


91 


Frederick the Great 


1712 


1786 


91 


Mendelsohn . 


1720 


1786 


94 


Musseus . . . 


1725 


1787 


94 


Gessner (^SolomoTi) 


1730 


1788 


93 


llamann . . . 


1730 


1788 


98 


3Ioser 


1701 


1789 


98 


Schmidt 


1716 


1789 


92 


Blum 


1739 


1790 


92 


Gemnringen 


1726 


1790 


92 


Basedow . 


1723 


1790 


98 


Michaelis 


1700 


1791 


94 


Louisa von Karschin 


1722 


1791 


108 


Adolphe Schlegel . 


1721 


1793 


91 


J. Bode . 


1754 


1793 


99 


Burger {Gottfred) 


1748 


1794 


97 


Moeser 


1720 


1794 


94 


Zimmermann 


1728 


1794 


93 


Gailisli 


1756 


1795 


92 


Ch. Bode . 




1795 


99 


Mastallier 


173l' 


1795 


92 


Schatz 


1763 


1795 


92 


Zaupser 


1746 


1795 


92 


Kcenig 


1753 


1796 


92 


Peter Uz 


1720 


1796 


92 


Hippel 


1741 


1796 


100 


Wackenroder 


1772 


1798 


98 


Blumauer . . 


1755 


1798 


101 


Ramler 


1725 


1798 


93 


Lichtenberg 


1742 


1799 


93 


Thomasius . 

NINETEE 


NTH CENTURY. 




94 


Koestner . 


1719 


1800 


91 


Novalis (or Hardenberg) 


1772 


1801 


98 





INDEX. 




31 


German Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page 


Lacater 


1741 


1801 


96 


Glcim 


1719 


1803 


92 


Klopstock 


1724 


1803 


92 


Herder 


1744 


1803 


96 


Kant .... 


1724 


1804 


99 


Schiller 


1759 


1805 


96 


Adelung 


1732 


1806 


94 


Becker 


1771 


1806 


101 


Sophia Brentano . 


1770 


1806 


108 


Meissner 


1753 


1807 


94 


Schroeck ... 


1733 


1808 


97 


Scldbzer 


1735 


1809 


100 


Pfeffel . 


1736 


1809 


101 


John M'dller 


1752 


1809 


100 


Nicolai . 


1733 


1811 


94 


Beckman 


1739 


1811 


101 


Heyne 


1730 


1812 


93 


Wieland 


1733 


1813 


93 


Koerner 


1791 


1813 


102 


Ifland 


1759 


1814 


96 


Fichte 


1762 


1814 


99 


Jung .... 


1740 


1817 


94 


Schulze 


1789 


1817 


102 


Thummel 


1738 


1817 


103 


Campe 


1746 


1818 


94 


Madame Naubert 


1756 


1819 


94 


F. II. Jacobi 


1743 


1819 


100 


Kotzebue 


1761 


1819 


97 


Tennemann . 


1761 


1819 


100 


Halen 


1752 


1819 


101 


Solger 


1780 


1819 


100 


Theodore Hoffmann 


1776 


1822 


104 


Gerstenberg 


1737 


1823 


94 


Jean Paid Richter 


1763 


1825 


103 


Voss (John HeinricJi) . 


1751 


1826 


104 


Hebel . 


1760 


1826 


99 


Conz . . . . 


1762 


1827 


101 


Eichorn . 


1752 


1827 


94 


Bouterweh . . . 


1766 


1828 


106 


Werner . . . . 


1768 


1828 


97 


Mulner . 


1775 


1829 


105 


Frederick Scldegel 


1774 


1829 


98 


Lafontaine . . . . 


1752 


1831 


94 


Hegel 


1779 


1831 


99 



304 



INDEX. 



German Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Buerde . 


1753 


1831 


101 


Niebuhr . 


1776 


1831 


101 


Matthison . 


1761 


1831 


101 


Goethe . 


1749 


1832 


94 


Cotta . 


1764 


1832 


107 


Rahel (Madame) 


1771 


1833 


109 


Schleiermacher 


1768 


1834 


107 


Charlotte Stieglitz 


1806 


1834 


109 


Seewis . 


1762 


1834 


101 


Count Platen 


1796 


1835 


102 


Langbein 


1757 


1835 


103 


Benzel 


1767 


1835 


104 


Munchausen 


1759 


1836 


94 


Grabbe 


1801 


1836 


105 


Bosttiger 


1760 


1836 


94 


Malitz . . . * 


1779 


1837 


105 


Ancillon 


1766 


1837 


100 


Chamisso 


1781 


1838 


104 


Gaudy 


1800 


1840 


102 


Rotteck 


1775 


1840 


101 


Mdme. Schopenhaur 


1770 


1840 


108 


Immermann 


1796 


1841 


105 


Schenkendorf 


1778 


1841 


102 


Benecke 


1762 


1841 


107 


Heeren 


1760 


1842 


101 


La Motte Fouqut . 


1777 


1842 


106 


Caroline Pichler . 


1769 


184S 


108 


Kind 


1768 


184S 


102 


Madame Wolzogen 


1763 


1847 


96 


Henry Heine 


1797 


1847 


103 


Zschokke 


1774 


1847 


101 


Crusius 






94 


Wm. Schlegel 






98 


Leiois Tieck 






98 


Schlosser 






99 


Schelling 






99 


Brescia 


. 




100 


Gcerres 






101 


Leo .... 


. 




101 


Bitter . . . : 






101 


Schubart 






101 


Raumer 






101 


Ranke 






101 


Dahlmann , 






101 



INDEX. 



305 



German Writers. 

Duller 

Maurice Arndt 
Eberhard 
Zedlitz 
Uhland 
Sckwabbe 
Lenan 

" Anastasius Griin" 
Koerner 
Pyrhev 
Wesenberg . 
Hoffmann von Fallersleben 
Knappe 
Kopitsch 
Simrock 
Laube 
Pfizer 
Mundt 
Freiligrath . 
G-utzkow 
Becke . 
Eickendorf . 
Jacob Grimm 
William Grimm . 
Grilprazer . 
Menzel 
L. Arnini 

Lewis, King of Bavaria 
Werner 
Auffenberg . 
Schenk 
Raupacli 
Princess Amelia of Saxony 
Duke of Mecklenburg 
Amelia von Schoppe 
Raimund 
Sternberg 
Lotz 

F. Holm . 
Scboeffer 
Alex. Humboldt 
Tarnowski . 
Toepfer 
Heugel 



Born. 



Died. 



Page. 

101 
102 
102 
102 
102 
102 
102 
102 
102 
102 
102 
102 
102 
102 
102 
103 
102 
103 
102 
103 
102 
103 
104 
104 
104 
104 
104 
104 
105 
105 
105 
105 
105 
105 
106 
106 
106 
106 
106 
106 
107 
106 
106 
106 



26* 



306 

German Writers 
F. Strauss . 
Hem. Steffen 
JSfeander 
MarTieinehe 
Zunz . 
Furst . 
Jost . 
Manheimer 
Biesser 
G-eiger 



Bopp . 

Freytag 

Rosenmtiller 

Ewald 

Von der Hagen 

Biisching 

Lachmann 

Schmeller 

Wolff . 

Hoffmeister 

Savigny 

Stahl . 

Hullmann 

Welcker 

Schubert 

Buch . 

Oken . 

Link . 

Brown 

Erichson 

Encke . 

Blmnenhagen 

Johanna Weissenthurn 

Frederica Bruhn 

Fanny Tarnow 

Theresa Haber 

Bettina Arnim 

Countess Hahn HaTin 



INDEX. 

Bom, 



Died. 



INDEX. 



307 



ihnri) iUrtten 



SIXTH CENTURY. 

French Writers. Born. 

St. Remy 



Gregory of Tours 



544 



Died. 
589 
594 



Page. 
Ill 
111 



Charlemagne 
Alcuinus 
Eginhart 
Fredegairius 
William of Lorris 



NINTH CENTURY. 

740 



814 
816 

836 



111 
111 
112 
112 
113 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 



Abelard 
Brunetto Latini 
Villehardouin 



1213 
1294 



114 
113 
114 



Joinville 
Gerson 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
1223 



1317 
1336 



113 
114 



Christine of Pisan 
Froissart 
Alain Cliartier 
Charles of Orleans 
Clotilde de Surville 
Clement Isaure 
Basselin 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 

1363 1411 

1333 1419 

1386 1449 

1391 1467 

1405 1496 



114 
114 
113 
113 
113 
113 
113 



De Gelais (•Oct.) . 
Philip de Comines 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

1465 1502 116 
1445 1509 114 



308 



INDEX. 



French Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page 


Seyssel 




1520 


116 


Jean Marot . 


1457 


1523 


115 


Lemaire 


1473 


1524 


115 


Crestin 




1525 


115 


Chevalet 


. 


1528 


115 


Parmentier . 


1494 


1530 


115 


Louise de Savoie . 




1532 


137 


Chainpier (elder) . 


1472 


1540 


116 


Roger Bontems 


1455 


1540 


115 


Bude . ;■;•'. 


1470 


1540 


116 


Olivier 




1540 


115 


G-rognet 




1543 


115 


GuiL Bellai/ 




1543 


116 


Arena .... 




1544 


116 


Clement Marot 


! 1492 


1544 


115 


Du Guillet . 




1546 


115 


Stephen Dolet 




1546 


115 


Abbe Yatable 




1547 


117 


Francis I. 


1494 


1547 


115 


Marguerite de Yalois 


1495 


1549 


115 


Abundance . 




1550 


115 


Bouchet 




1555 


115 


Rabelais 


1483* 


1556 


117 


De la Peruse 


1530 


1556 


116 


Mellin Gelais 


1491 


1558 


116 


Robert Etienne 


1503 


1559 


117 


Martin Bellay 




1559 


116 


Herberaj 




1559 


117 


Henry II 


1519 


1559 


115 


Jean Bellay 




1560 


116 


Joachim Bellay 




1560 


116 


Simon Grebau 




1560 


115 


Jacques de la Taille 




1562 


115 


Arnoul G-rebau 




1562 


115 


Magny 




1562 


115 


Boetie .... 


1580 


1563 


115 


Calvin . . 


1509 


1564 


118 


Eustache Bellay . 




1565 


116 


Louise Labbe 




1566 


137 


Dumoulin 




1566 


117 


Xostradanius 




1566 


115 


Borderie 




1566 


115 


Hereot . 


'l492' 


156S 


115 


Grrevin 


153S 


1570 


116 







INDEX. 




30 


French Writers. Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Jean du Tillet ..... 


1570 


117 


Jean de la Taille . 








1570 


115 


Coligny 






1517 


1572 


117 


Yillegagnon 








1572 


117 


Jeanne cVAlbret . 






1528* 


1572 


137 


Tavanes de Saulx . 






1509 


1573 


117 


Val6e . 








1573 


117 


Amyot 






1514 


1573 


118 


1/ Hospital . 






1505 


1573 


118 


Jodelle 






1523 


1573 


119 


Habert 








1574 


115 


Charles IX. 






1550 


1574 


115 


Jacques Gohorry 








1576 


117 


Renii Belleau 








1577 


116 


Blaise de Montluc 




1500" 


1577 


117 


Claude de Pontoux 




1530 


1579 


116 


Abbe Billy . 




1535 


1581 


116 


Languet 








1581 


117 


Belleforest . 






1530 


1581 


117 


Morel . 








1583 


117 


Pibrac 






! 1529 


1584 


116 


Fr. Amboise 








1585 


116 


Muret . 






1526* 


1585 


116 


Argentre 








1585 


117 


Ronsard 








1585 


119 


Mad. de la Roche 






*1530 


1587 


137 


Cath. de la Roche 






1550 


1587 


137 


Mellin de Gelais 








1588 


116 


Paradin 








1590 


117 


Du Bartas . 






1544* 


1590 


116 


Ant. Baif . 






1532 


1591 


116 


Montaigne . 






1553 


1592 


118 


Fr. Grade" . 








1593 


117 


Castelneau . 








1593 


117 


Jean de la JesseV 




1550* 


1595 


116 


Jean Bodin . 








1596 


117 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



George Scudery 
Garnier 
Father Daniel 
Charron 





1601 


120 


1545 


1601 


116 


1530 


1603 


123 


1541 


1603 


124 



310 



INDEX. 



French 


Writer 


5. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Pontus Tyard 


1521 


1605 


119 


De Beze 






1519 


1605 


118 


Nic. Rapin 








1535 


1608 


119 


Voisin 










1608 


124 


Cayet . 








1525 


1610 


124 


Regnier 








1537 


1613 


119 


Brantome 








1527 


1614 


118 


Durant 








1554 


1615 


119 


Be Thou . 








1553 


1617 


118 


Arnauld 








1560 


1619 


124 


Coffetean 








1574 


1623 


124 


Hon ore d'Urfel 






1567 


1625 


119 


Pere Cotton 








1626 


124 


Goullart 






. 


1628 


124 


Malherbe 






1555 


1628 


119 


D' Orleans 








1629 


119 


D 'Aubigny . 








1630 


124 


Duke de Rohan 








1638 


124 


Duchesne 






1584* 


1640 


124 


Sully 






1559 


1641 


123 


Card. Richelieu 






1585 


1642 


124 


Abbe St. Cyran 








1643 


124 


Bassompierre 






1579* 


1646 


124 


Malleville . 






1597 


1647 


119 


Baro . 






1599 


1649 


119 


Scarron 






1610 


1649 


119 


Descartes 






1596 


1650 


122 


Rotrou 






1609 


1650 


119 


Vaugelas 








1650 


124 


Yoiture 






1598* 


1651 


124 


Balzac 






1596 


1654 


124 


Tristan 






1568 


1655 


119 


St. Marthe . 






1571 


1655 


124 


Tristan the Hermit 






1601 


1655 


119 


Bergerac 






1620 


1655 


119 


Gassendi 






1592 


1655 


124 


Bignon 






1590 


1656 


124 


Ryer 






1608 


1658 


119 


Duryer 






1605 


1658 


121 


St. Armand 






1594 


1660 


120 


Breboeuf 






1615 


1661 


120 


Dupleis 






1569 


1661 


124 


Pascal 






1623 


1662 


122 


Calprenede . 










1663 


123 



INDEX. 



311 



French Writers. 


Bom. 


Died. 


Page 


Paean 


1589 


1670 


119 


Pcrefixe 




1670 


124 


Lemoine 




1671 


120 


Patin 


1601* 


1672 


124 


La Motlie de Yayer 


1588 


1672 


124 


Cardinal de Retz . 


1614 


1672 


123 


Moliere 


1622 


1673 


122 


Des Barreaux ' . 


1602 


1674 


119 


Chaplain 


1595 


1674 


119 


Gabriel Gilbert 




1680 


119 


Rochefoucauld 


1613 


1680 


122 


Moreri 


1643 


1680 


123 


Bertaut 




1681 


119 


Mezerai 


1610* 


1683 


123 


P. Corneille 


1606 


1684 


121 


Montfleury . 


1641 


1685 


119 


Chapelle 


1616 


1686 


119 


Bene Rapin 


1621 


1686 


119 


Mairet 


1604 


1686 


121 


Nicol . . ■ . 


1611 


1686 


122 


Quinault 


1635 


1688 


121 


Mme. de Motteville 




1689 


137 


Benserade 


1612 


1691 


120 


St. Real 


1639 


1692 


123 


Pelisson Fontaniers 


1654 


1693 


124 


Bussy Rabutin 


1618 


1693 


125 


Mdlle. de Montpensier . 


1627 


1693 


123 


Mme. de Lafayette 


1633 


1693 


123 


Mme. Deshoulieres 


1638 


1694 


120 


D'Herbelot 


1625 


1695 


123 


Aubery . 


. 


1695 


125 


Lafontaine . 




1695 


120 


Varillas 


1625* 


1696 


125 


Abbe Martignac . 


1628 


1696 


125 


Mme. de Sevigni . 


1627 


1696 


124 


La Bruyere 


1639 


1696 


122 


Pradon 




1698 


120 


Racin . 

EIGHTEI 


1639' 

NTH CENTURY. 


1699 


120 


Boursault 


1638 


1701 


128 


Segrais 




1701 


128 



OLA J 

French Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


JBossuet . 


1627 


1701 


120 


Mme. de Scuderi . 


1607 


1701 


138 


Commire . . 


1625 


1702 


128 


Perrault 




1703 


128 


St. Evremond 


1613* 


1703 


122 


Mascaron . 


1654 


1703 


120 


DuchSt . 


1668 


1704 


121 


Bourdaloue 


1632 


1704 


120 


Mme. d'Aulnoy . 




1705 


138 


Bayle . 


1647* 


1706 


122 


Lafosse . 


1653 


1708 


128 


Thomas Corneille 


1625 


1709 


121 


Regnard 


1647 


1709 


122 


FlecMer . . . . ; - , 


1632 


1710 


120 


Boileau 


1636 


1710 


119 


Sophie Cheron 




1711 


138 


Lafare . 


1644* 


1712 


120 


Regrder Desrnarets 


1632 


1713 


120 


Jurieu 


1637 


1713 


123 


Fentton 


1651 


1715 


121 


JSIalebranche 


1638 


1715 


122 


Ancillon 


1659 


1715 


129 


Mme. Guy on 


1648 


1717 


138 


Balluze 


1631 


1718 


129 


Mme. de Maintenon 


1635 


1719 


138 


Letellier 


1643 


1719 


129 


Mme. Dacier 


1651 


1719 


123 


Jouvency 


1643 


1719 


129 


Grenest 


1689 


1719 


128 


Chaulieu 


1639 


1720 


120 


Palaprat 


1650 


1721 


129 


Massieu 




1722 


129 


Andrew Dacier 


1621 


1722 


123 


Brueys 




1723 


129 


Basnage 


*1635* 


1723 


129 


Campistron . 


1650 


1723 


121 


G-arat 


1694 


1723 


128 


Abbe Fleury . . 


1640 


1723 


123 


Dufresnoy 


1648 


1724 


119 


Rapin 


1661 


1725 


119 


Larne .... 


1643 


1725 


129 


Baron .... 


1657 


1729 


119 


Du Jarry 




1730 


129 


Sauriii . . 


1677' 


1730 


128 



INDEX. 



313 



French Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Laniotte-Houdar . 


1672 


1731 


126 


Camusat 


1695 


1732 


129 


Legenclre 




1733 


129 


Mdlle. de St. Lambert . 


1647* 


1733 


125 


Bellegrade . 


1648 


1735 


129 


Vertot 


1665 


1735 


123 


Le Clerc 


1657 


1736 


123 


Buffier 


1661 


1737 


122 


Sevin .... 




1741 


129 


Rollin 


1661* 


1741 


128 


Montfaucon . 


1655 


1741 


125 


J. B. Rousseau 


1670 


1741 


120 


Dubos 




1742 


130 


Massillon 


1663' 


1742 


121 


Chevalier Ramsay 


1686 


1743 


123 


Le Sage ... 


1668 


1747 


126 


Mme. du Chatelet 


. 


1749 


138 


Mdlle. Tencin 


1681 


1749 


124 


Mme. Staal de Launay 




1751 


138 


Duperron 


1705 


1752 


130 


La Chaussee 


1692 


1754 


129 


Destouches . 


1680 


1754 


126 


Montesquieu . 


1689 


1755 


127 


Marguerite de Lussan . 




1757 


138 


Fontenelle 


1657* 


1757 


127 


Calmet 


1672 


1757 


128 


Boissy 


1649 


1758 


129 


Mme. de G-raffigny 




1758 


138 


Maupertuis 




1759 


127 


Crebillon 


1647 


1762 


125 


Crevier 




1693 


1765 


128 


Ladvocat 




1709 


1765 


130 


Villaret 






1766 


130 


Goujet 




1697' 


1767 


130 


Olivet 




1682 


1768 


130 


Malfilatre 




1732 


1769 


125 


Macquer 






1770 


130 


Moncrif 




1687' 


1770 


129 


Picard 




1689 


1770 


126 


Relvetius 




1715 


1771 


127 


Duclos 




1704 


1772 


126 


Fevret 






1772 


130 


Beaumelle 






1773 


130 


Piron 




1689' 


1773 


126 



27 



314 


INDEX. 






French Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page 


Condamine . 




1774 


130 


Henault 


! 1635' 


1774 


123 


Voisenon 




1775 


129 


Colardeau 




1776 


129 


St. Foix 


'. 1703' 


1776 


129 


Gresset 


1709 


1777 


125 


J. Jacques Rousseau 


1712 


1778 


126 


Voltaire 


1694 


1778 


121 


Laporte 




1779 


130 


Dorat 


1734' 


1779 


129 


Laures 


1709 


1779 


129 


Dreux de Radier . 


1714 


1780 


130 


Condillac 


1715 


1780 


128 


Gilbert 


1751 


1780 


119 


D'Anville . . 


1697 


1782 


130 


Duhamel 


1700 


1782 


130 


Marivaux 


1738 


1783 


126 


D'Alembert . 


1717 


1783 


127 


Colle 


1709 


1783 


126 


Diderot 


1713 


1784 


126 


Antoine Thomas . 




1785 


129 


Mably 


'l709 


1785 


130 


Millot 




1785 


128 


Goguet 


1716' 


1786 


127 


Dupaty 


1744 


1788 


130 


Savary 


1750 


1788 


128 


Bvffbn 


1707 


1788 


127 


D'Holbach . . 


1723 


1789 


127 


Mirabeauj . 


1749 


1791 


130 


Ridhieres 


1735 


1791 


130 


Mme. Riccobeni . 


1714 


1792 


138 


Favard . 


1710 


1792 


126 


Mme. de Goujet . 


1755 


1793 


138 


Mme. Roland 


1754 


1793 


138 


Lemierre . 


1733 


1793 


129 


De la Place . 


1707 


1793 


129 


Champfort . 


1741 


1793 


130 


Bailly . 


1736 


1793 


130 


Volney . " . 


1757 


1793 


128 


Cam. Desmoulins . 


1762 


1794 


130 


Linguet . 


1736 


1794 


130 


Malesherhes . . . 


1721 


1794 


130 


Thouret 


1746 


1794 


130 


Andre Chenier 


1762 


1794 


125 





LNDEX. 




3: 


French Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page 


Florian 


1755 


1794 


125 


Condorcet 


1743 


1794 


127 


Fabre d'Eglautine 


1755 


1794 


126 


Bartlielmy . 


1716 


1795 


128 


Beaufort 




1795 


130 


Collot d'Herbois . 


1750* 


1796 


129 


Raynal 


1711 


1796 


128 


Sedaine 


1719 


1797 


126 


Richer 


1720 


1798 


130 


Guys 


1721 


1799 


130 


Beaumarchais 


1732 


1799 


126 


Mannontd . 


1723 


1799 


127 



315 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



Latour d'Auvcrgne 

Mine. Bourdic Viot 

Mme. Duboccage 

St. Lambert 

La Harpe 

Necker 

Carmontelle . 

Desforges 

Mme. Cottin 

Colin d'Harleville 

Anquetil {L. P.) 

Grimm (Baron) 

Lebrun 

Sabatier 

Valmont 

Cabanis 

Dupuis 

Saint Croix . 

Luce de Lancival 

Joseph Chenier 

Esmenard 

Levesque 

Toulongeon . 

Delille (Jacques) 

Legouve 

Bernardin de St. Pierre 

Parny . 

Gcoffroy 



1743 


1800 


131 


1716 


1802 


138 


1710 


1802 


138 


1717 


1803 


131 


1739 


1803 


126 


1732 


1804 


131 


1717 


1805 


131 


1746 


1806 


131 


1773 


1806 


138 


1755 


1806 


126 


1723 


1806 


128 


1723 


1807 


131 


1729 


1807 


131 


1735 


1807 


131 


1731 


1807 


131 


1757 


1808 


128 


1742 


1809 


135 


1746 


1809 


132 


1766 


1810 


132 


1764 


1811 


126 


1770 


1811 


132 


1736 


1812 


132 


1748 


1812 


132 


1738 


1813 


125 


1764 


1813 


132 


1737 


1814 


126 


1753 


1814 


132 


1743 


1814 


132 



316 



INDEX. 



French Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Palissot 


1730 


1814 


132 


Boufflers 


1737 


1815 


132 


Ginyuene 


1748 


1816 


132 


Mentelle 


1730 


1816 


132 


■Ducis .... 


1733 


1816 


126 


Millevoye 


1782 


1816 


137 


Mme. de Stael 


1766 


1817 


131 


G-ouffier . 


1762 


1817 


132 


Suard .... 


1734 


1817 


132 


Delille 


1738 


1818 


125 


Morellet 


1727 


1819 


132 


Mme. de Remusat 


1720 


1821 


138 


Sicard (Abbe) 


1742 


1823 


132 


Avrigny . 


1760 


1824 


132 


Bausset 


1748 


1824 


133 


Langles ... 


1763 


1824 


133 


P. L. Courrier 


1778 


1824 


133 


Mine. Dufresnoy . 




1825 


138 


Ferrand 


1785 


1825 


133 


Gl. Foy . . . 


1775 


1825 


133 


Lacepede 


1756 


1825 


133 


Boissy d'Anglas . 


1756 


1827 


133 


Mine. Gruizot 


1773 


1828 


138 


Neufckateau 


1752 


1828 


133 


Picard ... 


1769 


1828 


134 


Daru .... 


1767 


1829 


134 


Benj. Constant 


1767 


1830 


134 


Mme. de Genlis . 


1746 


1830 


132 


Cuvier 


1796 


1832 


137 


De Tracy . 


1754 


1836 


128 


Laroiniguiere 


1756 


1837 


128 


Lally Tollendal . 


1751 


1839 


134 


Sismondi 


1773 


1845 


134 


Casimir de la Vigne 


1794 


1845 


133 


Chateaubriand 


1769 


184S 


131 


Dupin 






129 


De Bonald 








130 


Duval . 








136 


Beranger 








133 


Lamartine 








133 


Guizot 








134 


Cousin 








134 


Barante 








134 


Mignet 




. 




134 



INDEX. 



317 



French ' 


Writers. 




Born. 




Died 


Page. 


Michelet 


134 


Thiers 














134 


Quinet 














134 


Aug. Thierry 














134 


Villemain 














134 


Alex. Dumas 














134 


Dupuis 














135 


Ballanche 














135 


Fourrier 














135 


Leruercier 














135 


Victor Hugo 














135 


Ancelot 














136 


Duval 














136 


Souniet 














136 


Royer-Collard 














137 


Paul de Kock 














137 


Jules Janin • 














137 


Scribe 














137 


Andrieux 














136 


Barbier 














136 


Etienne 














136 


Alfred de Musset 














137 


Balzac 














137 


St. Beauve . 














137 


"G-eorges Sand" 














137 


Eugene Sue 














137 


Arago 














137 


Fred. Soulie 














137 


Louis Blanc 














137 


St. Marc Girardin 














137 


Aime Martin 




V 










137 


Segur . 














137 


De la Mennais 














137 


Raoul Rochette 














137 


Count Mat. Dumas 














134 



27 ; 



318 



INDEX. 



Brittst) lUriters. 



British Writers. 



Born. 



Ossian 



Died. 
200? 



144 



SIXTH TO THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 



Gildas 






550 


145 


Nennius 


♦ . • 


550 


145 


St. Columbanus 




615 


145 


Felix . 


' 637 


735 


145 


Alfred the Great . 




900 


146 


Venerable Bede 


' ' 848* 


901 


. 145 


JElfric 




1052 


147 


G-eoffrey of Monmouth 


(icrote) 


1131 


147 


William of Malm&lmry 




1143 


147 


Wace . . . 


(wrote) 


1160 


147 


Layamon 


(icrote) 


118C 


) 147 


Matthew Paris 


(icrote) 


1258 


147 


Roger Bacon 


1214 


1291 


147 


Thomas of Ercildoun 


(icrote) 


129S 


147 


Aldhelm 






145 


Casdnion 








145 


Coelfrid 








145 


Cynewolf 








147 


Wulfstone . 








147 


Philip de Thaun . 








147 


Thorold 




■ 




147 


Gaimar 








147 


Eobert of Gloucester 








147 


Robert Manning of Bou 


me . 






147 


Langtoft of Bridlington 








147 


Henry of Huntingdon 








147 


Matthew of Westminste 


r 






147 


Michael Scotus 








147 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 



Duns Scotus 
Fordun 



(icrote) 



1301 
1308 



148 
148 



INDEX, 



319 



British Writers 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Adam Davie 


(wrote) 


1356 


147 


Sir John Mandeville 


{wrote) 1300 


1356 


148 


Minot 


(wrote) 


1356 


148 


Rolle . 




1356 


148 


Langlande . 




1356 


148 


Wicldiffe . 


1324' 


1388 


148 


Barbour 


1326 


1396 


149 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 



Chaucer 


1328 


1400 


148 


William of "Wykeham . 


1324 


1404 


149 


Gower 


1325 


1408 


149 


Andrew of Wyntown . ( 


wrote) 


1420 


149 


Lydgate . . ( 


wrote) 


1430 


149 


James I. of Scotland 




1437 


149 


Blind Harry 




fl. 1460 


149 


Juliana Berners . 




1460 


150 


Sir John Fortescue 


1430 


1470 


153 


Caxton 




1471 


149 


Hutcheon 






149 


Clerk 






149 


Holland 






149 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



Robert Henryson . 




1508 


150 


Fabian 




1512 


153 


Dr. John Collet 


1416 


1519 


155 


John Heywood 




fl. 1520 


155 


William Dunbar . 




1520 


150 


Grawin Douglas 


1474 


1522 


150 


Lord Berners 




fl. 1523 


150 


Wm. Lily 


1468 


1523 


155 


Linacer 


1460 


1524 


151 


Sir Thomas More 


1481 


1535 


150 


John Skelton 


1490 


fl. 1535 


150 


Fischer 


1459 


1535 


154 


Tynedale 


1477 


1536 


155 


Sir Thomas Wyatt 


1503 


1541 


150 


Sir Thomas Eliot . 




1546 


150 


Lord Surrey (Henry Howard 


) 1516* 


1547 


150 


Edward Hall 




1547 


153 



320 


INDEX. 






British Writers. 


Bom. 


Died. 


Page. 


Clapperton . 




1550 


153 


Udall 




fl. 1551 


161 


Leland 




1552 


159 


Sir John Cheke 


1514 


1557 


153 


Cavendish . 




1557 


153 


Alexander Scot 




1562 


160 


Bale .... 


1493* 


1563 


154 


Edwards 




fl. 1566 


161 


Stowe 




1566 


162 


Sir David Lindsay 




1567 


152 


Roger Aschum 




1568 


152 


Bishop Jewel 


'l522' 


1571 


159 


John Knox . 


1505 


1572 


159 


Whetstone . 




1578 


161 


G-ascoigne 




1578 


155 


Grafton 




fl. 1580 


158 


Tusser 




1580 


150 


Thomas Watson . 




1581 


153 


George Buchanan . 


'l506 


1582 


159 


Holinshed 


. 


1584 


159 


Sir P. Sidney 


1554 


1586 


156 


Mary Queen of Scots 


1540 


1587 


152 


Marlowe 


1565 


1593 


157 


Peele .... 




fl. 1593 


161 


Richard Barnfield 


. m 


1594 


155 


John Lesley 


1527 


1596 


161 


Alexander Montgomery 


. 


1597 


160 


Lord Burleigh 


. 


1598 


153 


Spenser . 


1553 


1599 


156 


Sir John Davies . 




1599 


156 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



Nash . 










1600 


161 


Robert Southivcll . 










1600 


153 


Lyiy • 










fl. 1600 


161 


Munday 










1600 


161 


Chettie 










1600 


161 


Dekker 










fl. 1601 


161 


Webster 










fl. 1601 


161 


Bellenden 










fl. 1602 


152 


Hooker 








159 


James I. of Engla 


Qd 


■ (H 


)<m) 




1603 


159 





INDEX. 




32 


British Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Sir James Melvil . 




1605 


161 


Knolles 




1606 


160 


Sackville (Ld. Buckhurst) 




1608 


155 


Giles Fletcher 




1610 


160 


Sir John Harrington 




1612 


156 


Sir Walter Raleigh 


1552* 


1613 


156 


Sir T. Overbury . 




1613 


159 


Sandys 


1577' 


1613 


160 


SJiakspeare . 


1564 


1616 


157 


Hackluyt 


1553 


1616 


159 


Beaumont 




1615 


158 


David Calderwood 


• 


fl. 1617 


161 


Baron Napier 


1550 


1617 


159 


Joseph Sylvester . 




1618 


156 


Samuel Daniel 


1562* 


1619 


156 


Ed. Wright 


. 


1620 


159 


Camden 




1623 


159 


John Fletcher 


'. 1576 


1625 


158 


Lodge 




1625 


161 


Lord Bacon 


1561 


1626 


159 


Sir John Davies . 




1626 


156 


Drayton 


'l563* 


1627 


156 


Middleton . 




1627 


161 


Purchas 


1577' 


1628 


159 


Owen Feltham 




1628 


160 


Speed .... 


1555* 


1629 


162 


Hayward 




1627 


160 


Cotton {Sir Robt.) 


1570 


1630 


159 


Donne 


1575 


1631 


160 


Fairfax 




fl. 1631 


156 


George Herbert 


'. 1593* 


1632 


160 


Abbot (Archbishop of Canter 


bury) . 


1633 


159 


Marston 




1634 


161 


Chapman 


1557 


1634 


160 


Sir Edward Coke 


1549 


1634 


159 


Archbishop Usher 


1591 


1636 


159 


Ben Jonson . 


1575 


1637 


157 


Ford .... 


1586 


1639 


161 


Archbishop Spottiswoode 


1565 


1639 


161 


Carew ... 


1589 


1639 


160 


Burton 


1576 


1639 


160 


Earl of Stirling . 


1588 


1640 


160 


Massinyer 


f584 


1640 


157 


Lithgone 




1640 


160 



322 



INDEX. 



British Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Arthur Johnston . 


1587 


1641 


161 


Sir John Suckling 


1608 


1641 


160 


Spelman 


1561 


1643 


162 


Quarles 


1592 


1644 


160 


William Chillingworth . 


1602 


1644 


159 


Nabbes 


. . 


1645 


161 


Seidell 


1584 


1645 


160 


Baker .... 


1563 


1645 


160 


William Browne . 


' 1590 


1645 


160 


Lord Herbert of Cherbury 


1581 


1648 


162 


Drummond . 


1589 


1649 


160 


May .... 


1594 


1650 


160 


Crashaw 




1650 


160 


Phineas Fletcher . 




1650 


160 


Bishop Wilson 


1596' 


1652 


163 


Earl of Ancrum . 


1578 


1654 


160 


Bishop Joseph Hall 


1574 


1656 


160 


Bobert Herrick 


1591 


1656 


157 


Fuller .... 


1608 


1662 


162 


Peter Heylin 


1600 


1662 


159 


Mrs. K. Philips . 


1631 


1664 


160 


John G-andon 


1605 


1665 


159 


Bishop Earle 


1601 


1665 


159 


Sir B. Fanshaw 


1607 


1666 


160 


Shirley 


1596 


1666 


160 


Calamy 


1600 


1666 


163 


Howell 


1596 


1666 


160 


Jeremy Taylor 


1613 


1667 


162 


Sir John Denham 


1615 


1668 


160 


Coirfey 


1618 


1667 


160 


Withers 


1588 


1667 


160 


Sir William Davenant . 


1605 


1668 


160 


Bishop Wilkins 


1614 


1672 


163 


Duchess of Newcastle . 




1673 


164 


Milton 


'l608 


1674 


161 


Whitelock . 


1605 


1676 


169 


Harrington . 


1611 


1677 


163 


Dr. Isaac Barrow 


1630 


1677 


168 


Thomas Stanley . 


1625 


1678 


164 


Andrew Marvel 


1620 


1678 


164 


Thomas Hobbes . 


1588 


1679 


162 


Earl of Bochester . 4# 


1647 


1680 


164 


Butler .... 


1612 


1680 


164 


Thomas Herbert . 


1612 


1681 


160 



INDEX. 



323 



British Writers. 


Bom. 


Died. 


Page. 


Sir Thomas Browne 


1615 


1682 


163 


Algernon Sydney . 


1617 


1683 


162 


John Owen . 


1616 


1683 


163 


Izaak Walton 


1593 


1683 


164 


Earl of Roscommon 


1635 


1684 


164 


Otway 


1651 


1685 


164 


Lovelace 


1618 


1685 


160 


Bishop Pearson 


1613 


1685 


163 


Dugdale 


1665 


1686 


162 


Cotton 


1630 


1687 


164 


Dr. Henry More . 


1614 


1687 


163 


Clarendon 


1608 


1687 


162 


Waller 


1605 


1687 


160 


Cuclworth . 


1617 


1688 


163 


Banyan 


1628 


1688 


164 


Mrs. Behn - . 




1689 


164 


George Fox . 


1624 


1690 


163 


Robert Barclay 


1648 


1690 


1*2 


Sir G. Mackenzie . 


1636 


1691 


167 


Baxter . . . 


1615 


1691 


163 


Flavel 


1627 


1691 


163 


Hon. Robert Boyle 


1627 


1691 


163 


Thomas Shadwell . 


1640 


1692 


164 


Lee .... 




1692 


164 


Elias Ashmole 


1617' 


1692 


166 


Archbishop Tillotson 


1630 


1694 


162 


Vaughan . . 


1614 


1695 


164 


Stillingfleet . 


1635 


1699 


162 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



John Aubry . 


1626 


1700 


166 


Sir William Temple 


1629 


1700 


162 


JDryden . . 


1631 


1700 


164 


Sir Charles Sedley 


1639 


1701 


164 


John Pomfret 


1667 


1703 


172 


Locke 


1663 


1704 


168 


Bishop Sprat 


1632 


1704 


163 


Tom Brown . 


1636 


1704 


166 


Sir Ptoger 1/ Estrange 


1636 


1704 


162 


Ray 


1628 


1705 


176 


Sackville, Earl of Dorset 


1637 


1706 


165 


Evelyn 


1620 


1706 


163 



o^4 INDEX. 






British Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Farquhar . 


1678 


1707 


169 


Stepney .... 


1663 


1708 


172 


John Philips 


1676 


1708 


172 


Ed. Smith .... 




1710 


172 


Duke . . . . 




1710 


172 


King 


1663* 


1712 


172 


Earl of Shaftesbury 


1671 


1713 


168 


Rymer 


1638 


1713 


166 


Sprat . 


1636 


1713 


172 


Matthew Henry . . . 


1663 


1714 


163 


Wycherley .... 


1640 


1715 


164 


Dr. Robert South 


1638 


1715 


163 


Bishop Burnet 


1643 


1715 


168 


Andrew Fletcher . 


1653 


1716 


169 


Samuel Garth 


. 


1717 


172 


Eustace Budgell . 




fl. 1717 ■ 


167 


John Hughes 




fl. 1717 


168 


William Penn 


1644* 


1718 


164 


Parnell .... 


1679 


1718 


165 


Roice .... 


1673 


1718 


165 


Rev. Richard Cumberland 


1682 


1718 


188 


Addison .... 


1672 


1719 


165 


Flam steed .... 


1646 


1719 


176 


Ochley .... 


1678 


1720 


166 


Prior 


1664 


1721 


165 


Sheffield, Duke of Buckinghai 


n 1649 


1721 


165 


Charles Leslie 


1650 


1722 


169 


Tom d'Urfey 


1628 


1723 


166 


Lady Rachel Russell 


1635 


1723 


163 


Mrs. Centlivre 


1667 


1723 


165 


Dean Prideaux 


1648 


1724 


170 


Sir John Vanbrugh 


1672 


1726 


169 


Sir Isaac JVeicton 


1642 


1727 


169 


Dr. William Nicholson . 


1625 


1727 


169 


Blackmore 


. 


1729 


172 


Sir Richard Steele 


1678 


1729 


168 


Dr. Samuel Clarke 


1675 


1729 


169 


Congreve . . 


1670 


1729 


165 


Fenton 




1730 


172 


Daniel Defoe 


'l660 


1731 


169 


Honorable Charles Boyle 


1676 


1731 


169 


Bishop Atterbury . 


1662 


1732 


168 


Gay . . ' . 


1643 


1732 


165 


Dr. Matthew Tindal 


1657 


1733 


169 



INDEX. 



325 



British Writers 
Bernard Mandcvillc 
Dr. Arbuthnot 
Southern 
Matthew Green 
Strype 
Lillo 
Tickell 
Dr. Bentley . 
Somerville 
Savage 
Pope . 
Swift . 
Blair . 
Dr. Potter . 
Dr. Isaac Watts 
Thomson 
Middleton 
Lord Bolingbroke 
Dr. Doddridge 
William Whiston 
Bishop Butler 
Bishop Berkeley 
William Hamilton 
Fielding 
Collins 
Hartley 
Colley Gibber 
Edward Moore 
Allan Ramsay 
Dyer 
Hervey 
Richardson 

Reverend William Law 
Dr. Hoadley 
William Oldys . 
Archbishop Sherlock . 
Bradley 

Lady M. W. Montague 
Shenstone 
Robert Dodsley 
Robert Loyd 
Churchill . 
Young 

David Mallett 
28 



Bom. 


Died. 


Page. 


1670 


1733 


169 




1735 


166 


1659 


1736 


165 


1696 


1737 


165 


1647 


1737 


166 


1693 


1739 


165 


1686 


1740 


172 


1661 


1742 


169 


1682 


1742 


172 


1698 


1743 


172 


1688 


1744 


165 


1667 


1745 


170 


1699 


1746 


172 


1674 


1747 


170 


1674 


1748 


172 


1700 


1748 


171 


1683 


1750 


169 


1672 


1751 


168 


1702 


1751 


169 


1667 


1752 


169 


1669 


1752 


173 


1684 


1753 


170 


1704 


1754 


172 


1707 


1754 


173 


1720 


1756 


171 


1705 


1757 


173 


1671 


1757 


170 


1720 


1757 


176 


1682 


1758 


170 


1700 


1758 


172 


1714 


1758 


165 


1689 


1761 


173 


1686 


1761 


178 


1679 


1761 


176 


1696 


1761 


172 


1678 


1761 


170 


1692 


1762 


176 


1690 


1762 


166 


1714 


1763 


171 


1703 


1764 


172 


1733 


1764 


172 


1741 


1764 


172 


1681 


1765 


166 


1724 


1765 


172 



326 



INDEX. 



British Writers 




Born . 


Died. 


Page 


Mrs. Sheridan 


. 


1766 


174 


Grainger 






1721 


1766 


172 


Bower 






1686 


1766 


175 


Michael Bruce 






1746 


1767 


172 


Bishop Lardner 






1684 


1768 


170 


Sterne 






1713 


1768 


174 


Ahenside 






1721 


1770 


171 


Whitfield . 






1714 


1770 


178 


William Harris 






1710 


1770 


179 


Cliatterton . 






1752 


1770 


173 


Falconer 






1730 


1770 


172 


Guthrie 






1708 


1770 


175 


Smollett 






1720 


1771 


173 


Junius' s Letters 






1769 


to 1772 


179 


Dr. Hawkesworth 




1715 


1773 


168 


John Cunningham 




1729 


1773 


172 


Gray 




1716 


1773 


171 


Lord Lyttleton 




1708 


1773 


172 


Dr. Gregory 




1724 


1773 


173 


Lord Chesterfield 




1694 


1773 


174 


Abraham Tucker 




1705 


1774 


177 


Goldsmith . 




1728 


1774 


171 


Dr. John Campbell 




1709 


1775 


175 


Fergusson 




1710 


1776 


175 


Hume 






1720 


1776 


175 


Francis Fawkes 






1721 


1776 


172 


Samuel Foote 






1721 


1777 


176 


Langhorne . 






1735 


1779 


172 


Armstrong . 






1701 


1779 


172 


David Gar rich 






1716 


1779 


176 


Hammond . 






1710 


1779 


172 


Bishop Warburton 








1779 


163 


Blachstone . 






1723 


1780 


176 


Orme . 








1781 


176 


Lord Karnes 








1781 


177 


Harriet Lee 








pub. 1781 


188 


John Scott . 






1730° 


1783 


172 


Dr. Kennicott 






- 1718 


1783 


176 


H. Brook . 








1783 


176 


Alexander Boss 








1784 


172 


Dr. Johnson 






1709 


1784 


174 


Whitehead (Wil.) 




1715 


1785 


172 


Glover 




1712 


1785 


172 


Dr. Gilbert Stuart 






1742 


1786 


175 



INDEX, 



327 



British Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Dr. John Jebb 


1736 


1786 


178 


Soarae Jenyns 


1704 


1787 


179 


Bishop Lowth 


1710 


1787 


177 


Logan 


1748 


1788 


172 


Mickle 


1734 


1788 


172 


Thomas Sheridan . 


1721 


1788 


174 


Thomas Warton 


1728 


1790 


172 


Dr. Robert Henry 


1718 


1790 


175 


Adam Smith 


1723 


1790 


177 


Lord Monboddo . 


1714 


1790 


179 


Wesley 


1703 


1791 


178 


Lord Hailes 


1726 


1792 


176 


Sir Joshua Reynolds 


1723 


1792 


179 


Bishop Home 


1730 


1792 


178 


Wm. Tytler 


1711 


1792 


175 


Win. Russell 


1741 


1793 


176 


Robertson 


1721 


1793 


175 


Hunter 


1728 


1793 


170 


George Colman the Elder 


1733 


1794 


176 


Gibbon 


1738 


1794 


175 


Sir Wm. Jones 


1746 


1794 


17? 


Miss Blamire 


1747 


1794 


180 


Bruce 


1730 


1794 


172 


Boswell 


1740 


1795 


193 


Dr. Greorge Campbell . 


1709 


1796 


178 


Black 


1728 


1796 


170 


Macpherson ... 


1738 


1796 


172 


Burns 


1759 


1796 


173 


Reid 


1710 


1796 


177 


Edmund Burke 


1729 


1797 


178 


Horace Walpole 


1717 


1797 


174 


Macklin ... 


1690 


1797 


170 


Mason 


1748 


1797 


171 


Pennant 


1726 


1798 


198 


Matthias 




1798 


180 


John Lowe . 


1750.' 


1798 


172 


Wm. Melmoth 


1710 


1799 


179 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



Hugh Blair 
Cowper 
Joseph Warton 



1718 


1800 


178 


1732 


1800 


171 


1722 


1800 


171 



328 



INDEX, 



British Writers. Born. 


Died. 


Page, 


Gilbert Wakefield 


1756 


1801 


194 


Bage 


. . . 1728 


1801 


188 


Richd. Gall . 


1776 


1801 


187 


Dr. John Moore 


1730 


1802 


188 


Darwin 


1721 


1802 


180 


Dr. Beattie . 


1735 


1803 


173 


Joseph Ritson 


1752 


1803 


195 


Dr. Priestley- 


1731 


1804 


177 


Rev. W. Gilpin 


1724 


1804 


195 


Bishop Horsley 


1783 


1805 


194 


Ar. Murphy 


1703 


1805 


176 


Dr. Paley . 


1743 


1806 


194 


Mrs. Charlotte Sm 


ith . . 1749 


1806 


180 


Henry Kirke Whi 


fce . . 1785 


1806 


181 


Bishop Porteus 


1731 


1808 


194 


John Home 


1722 


1808 


177 


Thomas Moss 




1808 


172 


Dr. Hurd . 


°1720 


1808 


" 178 


Miss Seward 


1747 


1809 " 


180 


Thomas Holcroft 


1774 


1809 


188 


Bishop Watson 


1792 


1810 


194 


Robert Tannahill 


1774 


1810 


187 


Mrs. Henry Tighe 


1773 


1810 


180 


Dr. Thomas Percy 


1728 


1811 


172 


John Leyden 


1775 


1811 


180 


Maskeleyne 


1732 


1811 


170 


Rev. James Graha 


m . . 1765 


1811 


181 


William Tennant 


1728 


pub. 1812 


187 


Alexander Wilson 


1766 


1813 


187 


Dibdin 


1745 


1814 


177 


Eliz. Hamilton 


1758 


1815 


189 


Richard Brinsley £ 


Sheridan . 1751 


1816 


176 


Jane Austen 


1755 


1817 


189 


Mrs. Brunton 


. • . • 1788 


1818 


189 


Lewis 


1773 


1818 


f 181 

1 189 
187 


Hec. Macneil 


1746 


1818 


Laing . 


1762 


1818 


192 


Playfair 


1749 


1819 


197 


Dr. Thomas Browi 


i . . 1772 


1820 


194 


Keats 


. . . . 1796 


1820 


185 


Edw. Atherstone 




pub. 1821 


181 


Hayley 


1745 


1820 


180 


Mrs. Inchbald 


1756 


1821 


188 





INDEX. 




3: 


British Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Mrs. John Hunter 


1742 


1821 


180 


Herscbel 


1738 


1822 


170 


Shelley 


1792 


1822 


183 


Sir Alex. Boswell 


1775 


1822 


187 


Robert Bloomfield 


1766 


1823 


180 


Ricardo 


1772 


1823 


196 


Mrs. Radcliffe 


1762 


1823 


188 


Byron 


1787 


1824 


183 


Sophia Lee . 


1750 


1824 


188 


Lady Anne Barnard 


1750 


1825 


172 


Mrs. Barbauld 


1743 


1825 


180 


Charles Wolfe 


1791 


1825 


185 


Maturin 




1825 


(187 
(189 

186 


William Knox 


1789 


1825 


George Chalmers . 


1742 


1825 


192 


Dr. S. Parr . 


1746 


1825 


194 


Rees .... 


1743 


1825 


199 


Bishop Heber 


1783 


1826 


185 


Gifford 


1757 


1826 


180 


Pinkerton 


1758 


1826 


192 


Raffles 


1781 


1826 


197 


Charles Mills 


1789 


1827 


192 


Robert Pollok 


1799 


1827 


185 


G-. Canning . 


1770 


1827 


180 


Hislop 


1798 


1827 


187 


Mitford . . . 


1734 


1827 


192 


Dugald Stewart 


1753 


1828 


193 


Lady Caroline Lamb 


1785 


1828 


190 


William Coxe 


1747 


1828 


192 


Wollaston 


1766 


1828 


197 


Dr. Wolcot . 


1743 


1829 


181 


Sir H. Davy 


1778 


1829 


197 


Hazlitt 


1778 


1830 


195 


Mackenzie . . 


1745 


1831 


174 


Thos. Hope . 


1770 


1831 


190 


William Roscoe . 


1752 


1831 


192 


Rev. Robert Hall 


1764 


1831 


195 


Abernethy . 


1763 


1831 


198 


Anna Maria Porter 


1780 


1832 


189 


Bentham . 


1747 


1832 


196 


Sir J. Mackintosh 


1765 


1832 


193 


Adam Clarke 


1760 


1832 


195 


Sir Walter Scott . 


1771 


1832 


182 



28* 



330 



INDEX, 



British Writers 
George Crabbe 
Leslie . 

Sir John Malcolm 
O'Keefe 
Wm. Sotheby 
Ld. King 
Hannah More 
Lord Dover . 
Wilberforce 
Hon. William Spencer 
S. T. Coleridge . 
Thomas Pringle 
James Hogg 
Charles Lamb 
Mrs. Hemans 
Cobbett 

Eev. T. Malthus . 
Motherwell . 
M'Crie 
Sadler 
Sinclair 
H. D. Inglis 
G. Colman, the Younger 
John Mayne 
Gillies 

James Mill . 
Godwin 
Drake 

Robert Nicoll 
Sir Egerton Brydges 
Mrs. Grant . * . 
Miss Landon (L. E. L.) 
Dr. Herbert Marsh 
James Smith 
John Gait . 
Alison 

Lord Holland 
Mad. d'Arblay (Frances 
Frederick Reynolds 
Theodore Hook 
Astley Cooper 
Lister . 

Allan Cunningham 
Arnold 
Rev. John Foster . 



Burney) 



Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


1754 


1832 


182 


1766 


1832 


197 


1769 


1833 


193 


1746 


1833 


188 


1757 


1833 


181 


1776 


1833 


193 


1745 


1833 


189 


1797 


1833 


193 


1759 


1833 


194 


1790 


1834 


185 


1773 


1834 


182 


1788 


1834 


186 


1772 


1835 


187 


1775 


1835 


181 


1793 


1835 


186 


1762 


1835 


195 


1766 


1835 


196 


1797 


1835 


187 


1772 


1835 


193 


1780 


1835 


196 


1754 


1835 


196 


1795 


1835 


197 


1762 


1836 


187 


1761 


1836 


187 


1747 


1836 


192 


1774 


1836 


192 


1756 


1836 


192 


1766 


1836 


195 


1814 


1837 


187 


1762 


1837 


195 


1754 


1838 


180 


1802 


1838 


186 


1758 


1838 


194 


1775 


1839 


186 


1779 


1839 


189 


1757 


1839 


194 


1773 


1840 


193 


1752 


1841 


188 


1765 


1841 


188 


1783 


1841 


190 


1768 


1841 


198 




1842 


193 


1784* 


1842 


185 


1795 


1842 


192 


1778 


1843 


195 





INDEX. 




Si 


British Writers. 


Bom. 


Died. 


Page 


Southey 


1774 


1843 


181 


Loudon 


1783 


1843 


199 


Campbell 


1777 


1844 


(182 
1 193 

187 


Cary .... 


1772 


1844 


Beckford 


1760 


1844 


188 


Abercrombie 


1781 


1844 


194 


Dalton 


1766 


1844 


197 


Halford 


1766 


1844 


198 


Thomas Hood 


1800 


1845 


186 


Rev. Sydney Smith 


1769 


1845 


194 


Sharon Turner 


1768 


1847 


192 


Chalmers 


1780 


1847 


196 


Marryat 


1792 


1848 


191 


Sir John Barrow . 


1764 


1848 


193 


Isaac Disraeli 


1766 


1848 


195 


Prichard . . 


1785 


1848 


197 


Bernard Barton 


1784 


1849 


186 


Maria Edgeworth . 


1771 


1849 


189 


Morier 




1849 


190 


Countess of Blessington 


1789* 


1849 


191 


Horace Twiss 


1786 


1849 


(193 
1 199 


Maunder 


1786 


1849 


Horace Smith 






186 


Wordsworth . 






(181 

1 184 

181 


Rev. Lisle Bowles . 






Walter Savage Landor . 






181 


Thomas Moore 






182 


Rogers 


. 




182 


Brougham 






184 


Jeffrey 






184 


Wilson 






185 


Heraud 






185 


Milman 






(185 
1 192 


Leigh Hunt . 






J 185 

1 187 


Barry Cornwall (Proctor) 






185 


Rev. G. Croly 






185 


James Montgomery 






185 


Robert Montgomery 






186 


Ebenezer Elliot 






186 


Hon. and Rev. William Her] 


)ert 




186 



332 

British Wr 
John Clare . 
Haynes Bayly 
Joanna Baillie 
Hartley Coleridge 
Alfred Tennyson 
Frances Brown 
Lord Strangford 
Eliza Cook . 
Lady E. Wortley 
Miss Barrett 
Mrs. H. Coleridge 
Mrs. Brooke 
Hon. Mrs. Norton 
Mrs. Howitt 
Mrs. Southey 
Mitchell 
Lockhart 
Bowring 
Wiffin . 
Gilfillan 
Talfourd 
Henry Marston 
Henry Taylor 

Miss Mitford 

John Tobin . 
Thos. Morton 
Poole . 
Planche 
Jerrold 
Buckstone 
Bourcicault 
Mrs. Opie 
Jane Porter 
Lady Morgan 
Mrs. Shelley 
Lockhart. 
Miss Ferrier 
Colley G-rattan 
Baillie Fraser 
Ward . 
B. Disraeli . 
Mrs. Trollope 
Banim 



INDEX. 

Born. 



Died. 



INDEX. 



333 



British Writers 






Born. 




Died. 


Page. 


Crofton Croker 190 


Griffin 












190 


Carleton 












190 


Mrs. S. C. Hall . 












190 


Countess of Morley 
Lady Dacre 
Lady C. Bury 
Sir E. L. Bulwer . 












190 
190 
190 
191 


Mrs. Gore . 












191 


Miss Martineau 












191 


Miller 
Peacock 


m • 










191 
191 


Gleig 

Miss C. Sinclair . 












191 
191 


Currer Bell 












192 


Thackeray . 
James 












192 
191 


Maxwell 












191 


Lever . 












191 


Lover . 












191 


Warren 












191 


Mrs. Bray . 

Albert Smith 












191 
191 


Murray 

Lord Normanby . 
Ainsworth . 












191 
191 
191 


Charles Dickens . 












191 


O'Driscol . 












192 


Lingard 












192 


Palgrave 

Dunlop 

Wilkinson (Sir Gardner 

Brodie 


) 










192 
192 
192 
192 


Hallam 












192 


Fraser Tytler 

Napier 

Alison 












192 
192 
192 


Lord Mahon 












192 


St. John 












192 


Thirlwall . 












192 


Macaulay 
Grote . 












193 
192 


Gutzlaff 












192 


Elphinstone 












192 



334 



INDEX, 



British Writers. 



Born. 



Died. 



Page. 



Emerson Tennent 

Prescott 

Burton 

Miss Aikin . 

Miss Strickland 

Mrs. Jameson 

Dunham 

Miss Benger 

William Prior 

Lord Nugent 

Forster 

Burton 

Ld. John Russell 

Lord Campbell 

Bayley 

G-eorge Combe 

Dr. Maltby 

Newman 

Sewell 

Pusey 

Gladstone 

Christmas 

Kev. Ed. Forster 

Rev. Josiah Alport 

Thos. de Quincy 

Thos. Carlyle 

Wm. Howitt 

Isaac Taylor 

Dr. Whately 

Mrs. Marcet 

M'Culloch 

Senior 

Jones . 

Porter 

Pottinger 

Skinner 

Parry . 

Franklin 

Ross . 

Beechey 

Hardy 

Borrow 

Sir Francis Head 

Laing . 



British Writers 



Everest 
M'Farlane 

Mignan 

Earle . 

Carne . 

Keppel 

Kinglake 

Warburton 

Layard 

Ouseley 

Stuart 

Mackay 

Challis 

Herschel, jun. 

South . 

Bailey 

Brewster 

Galloway 

De Morgan 

Whewell 

Airy . 

Adams 

Kater . 

Ure . 

Jones . 

Faraday 

Owen . 

Mrs. Somerville 

Buckland 

Murchison 

Lyell . 

Delabeche 

Sedgwick 

Jameson 

Swainson 

Kirby 

Spence 

Conybeare 

Pennant 

Richardson 

Gray . 

Anderson 

Wallich 

Brown 



INDEX. 

Born. 



335 



Died. 



Page. 

197 

197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
197 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 



136 



British Writers 



Horsfield 

Hooker 

Lindley 

Baillie 

Abercrombie 

Armstrong 

G-ooch 

Copland 

Smith . 

Watson 

Forbes 

Sandwith 

Vaughan 

Todd . 

Colebrook 

Wilson 

Maitland 

Bosworth 

Kemble 

Wright 

Lardner (Dion.) 

Charles Knight 

Chambers (brothers) 

G-wilt 

Brande 



INDEX. 

Born. 



Died 



198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
198 
199 
199 
199 
199 
199 
199 



IMist) ilMtera. 



TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES. 



Mathew Chalewa 


. . 1166 


208 


Gallus .... 


1135 


206 


Kacllubek .... 


1223 


208 


Basko . . . ' . 


1271 


208 


Strzembeski 


1279 


208 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 



Vitellio 

John Opalinski 



1300 
1346 



208 
208 



INDEX. 



337 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 



Polish Writers 
Swinka 
John Huss . 
Jerome of Prague 
Dzierka 
Ciolek 
Rositius 
Duglosz 



Born. 

1376 



Died. 


Page 


1400 


208 


1415 


207 


1416 


207 


1420 


208 


1430 


208 


1470 


208 


1480 


208 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



Korwin 
Krosniaiiiii 
Tanicki 
Copernicus 
Szamotuski 
Sophia Olesnicka 
Orechowshi 
Ray 
Strut . 
Kosniincyzk 
Pszonka 
Ruiz 

Padniewski . 
Samborczyk 
Hosius 
Bielshi 
Gomicski 
Szarzenshi . 
Kocha?wwski 
Kromer 
Warszewicki 
Stryikowski 
Negoszewski 
Tvardovski 
John Haller 
Albert of Laski 
Seklucyan 
Birkowski 
29 





1530 


209 




1530 


209 


1516* 


1543 


209 


1473 


1543 


209 




1550 


210 




1560 


210 




1566 


211 


1515* 


1568 


208 




1568 


210 




1569 


210 




1570 


210 




1571 


210 




1572 


210 




1573 


210 




1579 


211 


1500 


1575 


210 


1520 


1580 


211 




1581 


210 


1530 


1584 


210 




1589 


212 




1590 


212 




1590 


212 




1596 


212 

208 
209 
209 
211 
211 



338 



INDEX. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



Polish Writers 






Born. 


Died. 


Page, 


Statorius 


212 


Solikowski . 










1603 


212 


Budny-Bienlacz 










1605 


212 


Zamoyshi . 










1605 


212 


Zeylitowski 










1605 


212 


Goslicki 










1607 


212 


Klonowicz 










1608 


212 


Treter 










1610 


212 


Rybinski 










1610 


212 


Skarga 










1612 


213 


Paprocki 










1614 


212 


Kmita 










1620 


212 


Miashow&hi . 










1620 


212 


Zimorowicz . 








1604 


1629 


212 


Szymonowicz 










1629 


212 


Staroioolslri . 










1630 


211 


jNaymanowicz 










1641 


214 


Grochowski . 








1570 


1644 


214 


Pietrokowczyk 










1645 


214 


Chelchowski 










1650 


214 


Cynerski 










1650 


214 


Otfinowski . 










1650 


214 


Broscius t 










1652 


214 


Opaliuski 










1655 


214 


Sarbievski (Casimir) 








1660 


213 


Saml. Twardowski 








1660 


214 


G-awinski 








1670 


215 


Pastorius 








1670 


214 


Andrew Morsztyn 








1670 


214 


Fredro 








1679 


214 


Jacob Sobieski 








1690 


215 


John Laski 










211 


Cox 












211 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Chroscinski . 

Stan. Lubomirski 

Malicki 

John Jablanowski 



1700 


215 


1702 


215 


1720 


215 


1731 


215 





INDEX. 




339 


Polish Writer?. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Princess Radzivil . 




1760 


216 


Eliz. Druzbacka . 


1693 


1763 


216 


Konarski 


1710 


1773 


216 


Joseph Jablouowski 


. 


1776 


216 


Rzewuski 


1705 


1779 


216 


Bokornolec . 




1780 


216 


Janocki 




1780 


216 


Zaluski 


1724 


1786 


215 


Wengierski . 


1755 


1787 


216 


Wyrwicz 




1793 


216 


Miuasowicz . 




1796 


216 


JSaruszewicz . 


'. 1753 


1796 


216 


Sulkowski 




1798 


217 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



Piramowicz . 




1801 


218 


JSzi/manowicz 
Krasicki 


1739 


1801 

1802 


218 
216 


Pockzobol 


1722 


1802 


217 


Ignacio Tanski 




1805 


218 


Skrzetuski . 




1806 


218 


G-odebski . . 




1808 


218 


Altertandi . 


1731 


1808 


218 


Dmochowski 




1808 


221 


Linde .... 




1809 


218 


Kniaznin 


1750 


1809 


217 


Corn. Molski 




1810 


219 


Drozdowski 




1810 


218 


Mme. Lubienski . 




1810 


218 


Naguczewski 




1811 


218 


Eysymont 
Tremhecski . 


1737 


1812 
1812 


218 
217 


Kollontay 
Brodzinski . 


1762 


1812 
1812 


217 

221 


Czacki (Count Thadeus) 
Slowacki . 


1765 


1813 
1814 


218 
218 


Dembrowski 


. 


1815 


218 


Stronowski 




1816 


218 


Kopcynski 
Korsak . 


1735 


1816 
1817 


218 
219 


Thad. Matuszewicz 




1817 


219 



340 



INDEX. 



Polish Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Bohusz (Xavier) . 




1819 


219 


Przybylski 




1819 


221 


Karpinski . 


1741 


1820 


217 


Felinski 




1820 


218 


Potocki (Count Stanislaus) 


1759 


1820 


219 


Wolski (Nic.) 


1751 


1822 


218 


Czartoryshi (Prince Adani) . 


1731 


1823 


219 


Kurpierski . 




1823 


222 


Zablocki . 




1823 


221 


Staszyc . . 




1826 


219 


Boguslavski . 




1829 


221 


Mochnaski . . . 


1804* 


1835 


219 


Princess Is. Czartoryski 


1743 


1835 


222 


Miekiewicz .... 


1798 


1843 


222 


Niemciwicz .... 


1767 


1846 


221 


Simonowicz . 






221 


Osinski . 






222 


Wenzyk .... 






222 


G-oluchovski . 






222 


Korzeniowski 






222 


Fredro .... 






222 


Mme. Tanska 






222 


Chodzko 






224 


Grorechi .... 






224 


Hurnicki .... 






224 


Jachowicz .... 






224 


Kosmian . 






224 


Odyniec . . . . 






224 


Ostrowski . . . . 






224 


Szydlowski .... 






224 


Tymowski .... 






224 


Witwicki .... 






224 


Zaleski .... 






224 


Bentowski .... 






224 


Borrowski . . . . 






224 


Chodkioewicz 






224 


Dniuszewski 






224 


Fomberg .... 






224 


G-olembiowski 




. 


224 


Kaminski . . 






224 


Kontrym .... 






224 


Lelewel . . . . 






224 


Mostowski .... 






224 


Oginski .... 






224 



INDEX. 



341 



Polish Writers. 


Born. 




Died. 


Page 


Onacewicz . ... 224 


Plater 










224 


Raczynski 
Rzewuski 










224 
224 


Senkowsky 
Skarbek 










224 

224 


Sniadecki 










224 


Szyrura .... 
Princess Lucy Grobroyc 
Princess Rosalie Lubomirska 








224 
224 

224 


Mme. Tyzenhaus . 
Mme. Malecka 








224 
224 


Mme. Widulunska 








224 


Mile. Korzeniowska 








224 


Ctsse. Ostro-w 


ska . 








224 



Hungarian tUvitera. 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 



John Panonius 
Andrew Hesz 
Conrad Celtes 



Tinodi 

Kakonagi 

Szekely 

Temesvari 

Heltai . 

Fasekas 

Tsanadi 

Valkai 

Kovats 



Zriny 
LisstLi 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



29* 



1400 


226 


1473 


226 


1497 


226 


1540 


226 


1549 


226 


1559 


226 


1569 


226 


1572 


226 


1577 


226 


1577 


226 


1579 


226 


1592 


226 


1652 


226 


1653 


226 



342 



INDEX. 



Hungarian Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Pasko .... 




1660 


226 


Pethoe .... 




1660 


226 


Bartha . . . . . 




1664 


226 


Lisnyai .... 




1692 


226 


Ko-hary .... 




1699 


226 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Parizpapai 

Mat. Bath 

Szabo 

Bajuis 

Daika 

Aranka 

Doeme 

Batsanyi 

Takats 

Horvah 

Teleki 

Fekete 

Matyasi 

Ragy . 

Versegi 

Virags 

Charles Kisfaludi 

Alexander Kisfaludi 

Doebroentei 

Szemere 

Csokonai 

Tot 

Yerzsenyi 

Yikovits 

Dugonitz 

Budai 

Bathori 

Feier . 

Marthon 

Ertsei 

Sarvari 

Endrcedi 



1708 
1721 



226 
226 

227 

227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 
227 



INDEX. 



343 



Utitd) Ulritera. 



TWELFTH CENTURY. 
Dutch Writers. Born. 



Christian de Troyes 



Died. 

1191 



Page. 

228 



THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 



Maerlant 
Melis Stoke 



1235 

1290 



234 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 



Henricourt . 
Lawrence Coster 
Monstrelet, . 
Chastelain . 
Olivier de la Marche 



1333 


1403 


235 


1370 


1409 


230 


1390 


1453 


235 




1475 


235 




1491 


235 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 



Despauterius 

Lemaire 

Erasmus 

Jan Second 

Clenardus 

Fruitiers 

Leopard 

Adrian Everts 

Nic. G-rudius (Everts) 

Cauter 

Junius 

Dathenus 

Johannes Dousa . 

George Dousa 

St. Aldegonde 

Gifanius 



1473 
1467 
1511 



1520 


233 


1524 


229 


1536 


231 


1536 


235 


1542 


233 


1556 


236 


1567 


233 


1568 


236 


1571 


236 


1575 


233 


1575 


233 


1590 


236 


1596 


240 


1597 


240 


1598 


236 


1604 


233 



344 



INDEX. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



Dutch Writers. 
Henschenius 
Pighius 
Putschius 
Paulus Merula 
Lipsius 
Arminius 
Visscher (father) 
Van Meteren 
Spiehgel 

Bonavent. Yulcanius 
Saml. Coster 
Bredero 

Heinsius (elder) 
Montgaillard 
G-erckmans 
Kamphuysen 
Van Meerbeke 
Gilles Waulde 
I/Espinoy 
Bor 
Beael 
Meursius 
Isaacus Pontanus 
Erycius, or Van de Putte 
Grotius 
Hooft 
Buteau 
Salmasius 
Hosschius . 
Jonktys 
Kats 

Scriverius 
Vos 

Corn. Schrevelius 
Bollandus 

Coornhert 

Dekker 

Anslo 

Westerhaen . 
Poirters 



Born. 


Died. 


Page. 




1604 


241 


, 


. 1604 


233 




1606 


241 




1607 


241 


1547* 


1606 


232 


1560 


1609 


233 


1556 


1612 


236 


1535 


1613 


229 


1594 


1613 


236 




1614 


241 




1617 


239 


1585 


1618 


239 


1580 


1621 


233 




1622 


241 




1624 


239 


1586' 


1626 


239 


1563 


1627 


229 




1627 


241 




1632 


241 


1559' 


1635 


233 


1583 


1637 


238 




1639 


241 




1640 


241 




1646 


240 


1583 


1641 


231 


1581 


1647 


237 




1648 


241 


1593 


1653 


233 




1654 


240 




1654 


240 


1577 - 


1660 


241 




1660 


241 


1620' 


1662 


240 




1664 


241 




1665 


241 


1622 


1666 


236 


1610 


1666 


240 


1622 


1669 


240 


1559 


1670 


240 




1674 


241 



INDEX. 



345 



Dutch Writers. 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Beronicus 




1677 


240 


Vondel 


1587' 


1679 


239 


The Elzevir family 


1592 


1680 


238 


Nicolas Jleinsius 


1620 


1681 


233 


Becanus 




1683 


241 


Antomdes ( Van der Goes) 


1647 


1684 


239 


Brandt (Gerard) 


1626 


1685 


240 


Huygens 


1596 


1687 


240 


Wallius 




1690 


241 


Anne Byns . 






231 


Casteleyn 






231 


G-liistele 






231 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Spanheim 

Rotgans 

Jansson 

Papebroch . 

Perizonius . 

Gronovius . 

Cuper 

Bos 

Lambert Ten Kate 

Sallengre 

Hubert Foot 

Bruin 

Haas 

Van Effen . 

Clericuss 

Busman 

Havercamp . 

Drakenborch 

Steenwyk " . 

Paw 

Dideric Smits 

Barre de Beaumarcnais 

Verstey 

Duim 

Snakenburg 

Klinkhamer 

Feitama 

Van der Kodde 





1710 


244 




1710 


237 




1712 


244 




1714 


241 




1715 


244 




1716 


244 




1716 


244 




1716 


244 




1723 


244 




1723 


244 


1689 


1732 


242 


1671 


1732 


242 


1685 


1723 


242 


1684 


1735 


243 




1736 


244 




1741 


244 




1742 


244 




1746 


244 




1748 


242 




1749 


244 




1750 


242 




1750 


244 




1751 


242 




1752 


242 




1753 


242 




1753 


242 


1694 


1758 


243 




1760 


242 



346 



INDEX. 



Dutch Writers, 






Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Oudendorp . 


1761 


244 


Duker 






1762 


244 


"Wesseling . 






1762 


- 244 


Hoogvliet 




1687 


1762 


242 


Henisterhuis 






176C 


> 244 


Win. Van Haren 




1713 


176S 


243 


Van Lennep 






1771 


244 


Wagenaar 




'l709 


1773 


241 


Onno Van Haren 






1772 


243 


Bellamy 




1757 


178£ 


» 243 


Valknaer ■ . 






178S 


244 


Nieuland 




'l769* 


1794 


243 


Winter 




1718 


1795 


242 


Langendyh 




1683 


1791 


243 


Ruhnkenius 






179S 


244 


Gerard Meeman . 






179£ 


243 


NINETEENTH CENTURY. 




Bakker 


1801 


243 


Simon Styl . 






1802 243 


Paquot 








1802 


I 242 


Alphen 








1802 


\ 243 


Water 








1802 


\ 243 


Nomsz 








1802 


243 


Eliz. Wolff . 








1804 


[ 244 


Agatha Dekken 








1804 244 


Saxius 








1806 


J 244 


Bilderjik 








1806 243 


Loosjes 








1806 244 


Lnzac 








180£ 


> 244 


Bosch 








1811 


244 


Wyttenbach 








181$ 


> 244 


Mme. Van Merken 






1772 


1842 


1 242 


Helmers 










243 


Eliz. Post . 










244 


Petronilla Moens . 










244 


Henry Conscience . 










244 


John cle Laet 










245 


Graillard 










245 


Jouanin and Gravar 










245 


Van Buekel 










245 


Dijk . . 








. 


245 


Van Spall 










245 



INDEX. 



347 



Oamsl) tDriftrs. 



ELEVENTH TO SIXTEENTH CENTURIES. 



Danish Writers. 






Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Isleif 


1052 


248 


Ari-Hinn-Frodi 








11— 


248 


Soemund Sigfussen 








1133 


248 


Sueno Aageson 








1186 


246 


Haal Taitsson 








1149 


248 


Snorro Sturhon . 








1192 


248 


Saxo G-rammaticus 








1203 


250 


G-issur Halsson 








1206 


248 


Brand Jonsson 








1262 


248 


Olav-Switas-Skalld 








1259 


249 


Sturla-Hinn-Frodi 








1284 


249 


Laaland 








1508 


251 


Banzau 








1598 


251 


SEVENTEENTH CENT 


URY. 




Tycho Brake . . 1546 


1601 


251 


Huitfield 






1609 


251 


Arreboe 






1637 


250 


Bording 




1619 


1677 


251 


Pontoppidan 




1616 


1678 


251 


Shested 






1698 


251 


EIGHTEENTH CENTI 


RY. 




Thomas Kingo . . 1634 


1703 


251 


Nic. Kingo 






17— 


251 


Helt 






1703 


251 


Torfens 




*1660 


1720 


251 


Beesenberg . 






1742 


251 


Holberg 




1684 


1744 


252 


Falster 






1752 


251 


Sclienedorf . 




1722 


1764 


251 


Kraft . 




1720 


1765 


251 


Tallin 




1728 


1765 


252 


Langebeck . 






1710 


1774 


258 



348 



INDEX. 



Danish Writers. 



Eioald 
Wessel . 
Schoening 
Wei/er 
Rothe 
Birkner 
Storm 
Samsoe 
Zetlitz 



Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


1742 


1781 


253 


1742 


1783 


253 


1722 


1783 


252 


1764 


1788 


253 


1731 


1795 


252 


1756 


1795 


253 


1749 


1795 


254 


1759 


1796 


254 




1796 


253 



NINETEENTH CENTURY. 



Baden 








1735 




1804 


254 


Tocle . 






1736 1805 


254 


Giddherg 






1805 


254 


Falsen 






1755 1808 


255 


Seidelin 






. • . 1812 


254 


Sander 






1812 


254 


Brurm 






i8ie 


► 253 


Bastholm 






1818 


254 


Thaarup 






1749 1821 


254 


Pram . 






1821 


254 


Hertz . 






1825 


255 


Baggesen 






1764 182e 


256 


Malte Brun . 






1760 1827 


255 


Rask . 






184S 


257 


Rahbek 












254 


Reitzel 














254 


Molbech 














254 


JSfyerup 














255 


Henri/ Steffens 














256 


(Ehlenschlager 














256 


Ingemann 














257 


Andersen 














257 


Wysse 














257 


Rosenhoft 














257 


Welhaven 














257 


Moller 














257 


Rudleback , 














257 


Engeltoft 














257 


Rothman 














257 



INDEX. 



349 



SmebisI) tUritcvs. 

Swedish Writers. Born. 



Died. 



Jan Store 
Olaiis Store 



Page. 

259 
259 



Olaiis Magnus 
Lawrence Peterson 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY, 



1480 



1568 
1541 



260 
259 



Gust. Adolpbus 
John Messinius 
Arnold Messinius 
John Messinius 
Bureus 
Tegel . 
Grirs . 
Stjernhiehi 
Loccenius 
Queen Christina 
Dalsthjerna . 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 



beheaded 



1594 


1632 


260 


1584 


1637 


260 




1651 


260 




1652 


260 




1653 


260 




1654 


260 


1598 


1672 


260 


1599 


1677 


260 


1626 


1689 


260 
260 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Rudbek 
Spegel 

Peringskiceld 
Triewald 
Norberg 
Hasselquist . 
Dahlin 

Madame Nordenflycht 
Moerk 
Botin 

Swedenborg 
Linnseus 
80 



1630 


1702 


261 


1645 


1714 


261 


1654 


1720 


261 


1648 


1743 


262 




1744 


262 


1722 


1752 


264 


1708 


1762 


262 




1763 


262 




1763 


264 


1708 


1763 


261 


1689 


1772 


261 


1707 


1778 


261 



350 



INDEX. 



Swedish Writers 






Born. 


Died 


Page 


Ihre . 


1780 261 


Bergman 






1735 


1784 261 


Creutz 








1785 261 


Laggerbring 
Atterbom 






'. 1707 


1788 261 
1790 264 


Gustavus III. 






1746 


1795 


5 262 


Bellmann 






1745 


1793 263 


Lidner 






1759 


179£ 


263 


Kellgrenn 






1751 


1795 261 


Olaf Ceolsius 






1761 


1795 262 


Ehrenswoerd 








179£ 


) 263 


Stenhamar . 










179£ 


> 263 


Bergius 

Thunberg 

Wallerius 












261 
261 
261 


Scheeld 












261 


Pohlen 












261 


Klingenstiema 
Stroemer 












261 
261 


Wargentin . 

Kryger 

Olafsen 












261 
261 
261 


Fischertroem 












261 


Goeranson 












261 


Brander 












262 


Bergerstroem 
Elers 












262 
263 


Tylas 
Olof Kexell 












263 
263 


Enwalson 












263 


Hallenberg . 
Hallmann 












263 
263 


Nordahl Brunn 












264 


Leopold 












263 



NINETEENTH CENTURY, 



Choraus 




1806 


263 


LiUjesthrale 


1721 


1806 


263 


Gyllenbovg . 


1732 


1808 


261 


Thorrild 


1759 


1808 


263 


Nordin 




1812 


264 


Madame Lenngren 




1815 


263 



Swedish Writers. 



INDEX. 

Born. 



351 



Sylverstolpe 

Alderbeth 

Oxentheirn 

Franzen 

Tegner 

Geijer 

Hamerskoeld 

Stagnelius 

Afzelius 

Beskow 

Cederborge 

Dalgren 

Frederica Bremer 

Olaf Wallin 

Creusenstolf 

Saterberg 

Fryell 

Jacob Aall . 



Died. 
1816 

1818 
1818 
1847 



Page. 

264 

263 

263 

264 

264 

264 

264 

264 

266 

266 

266 

266 

2Q,6 

266 

266 

266 

266 

266 



Russian tUritera. 



NINTH TO SIXTEENTH CENTURIES. 



St. Cyrill 

Jaroslav 

Nestor 

Nikitin 

Kylo . 

Agathon 

Jeorghi 

Kourbsky 

Greekoff 



863 


267 


1035 


267 


1100 


267 


1470 


267 


1481 


267 


1540 


267 


1550 


267 


1565 


267 


1583 


267 



Yove . 
Palatsin 
Procopowicz 
Nicon 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 





1607 


267 


t 


1629 


268 




1651 


267 


1605 


1660 


268 



352 INDEX. 

Russian Writers. Born. Died. Page. 

Slavianitsky 1666 268 

Theodore Griboiedoff .... 1676 268 



EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 



Princess Sophia . 








1704 


268 


Demetrius . 








1709 


268 


Yavorscy 








1722 


268 


Kracheninnikoff . 








1755 


268 


Propofsky . ' . 








1760 


268 


Wolkoff 






1729 


1763 


269 


Kantimir 






1709 


1765 


268 


Lomonossoff 






1711 


1765 


268 


Barkoff 








1768 


269 


Trediaskovsky 






1702* 


1769 


268 


Soumarakoff 






1718 


1777 


269 


Maikotf 








1778 


269 


Simeon 






1726 


1781 


269 


Kmazi.n 






1742 


1781 


269 


Ablessinoff . 








1784 


269 


Khemnitzer . 






1744 


1784 


272 


Scherbatoff . 






1733 


1790 


269 


Boltirt 






1735 


1792 


269 


Von Vizin . 






1745 


1792 


269 


Catherine II. 






1729 


1796 


269 


Kostroff 








1796 


271 


Petroff 






1736 


1799 


270 


Nedelinski . 










271 


NINETEENTH CENTURY. 






Golikoff ' . 1735 


1801 


270 


Efimief 








1804 


270 


Bogdanovitch 






\ 1743' 


1804 


270 


Kherassoff . 






1733 


1807 


270 


Bobroff 








1810 


271 


Kriouskofsky 






I78l' 


1811 


270 


Platon 






1740 


1812 


274 


Derzhavin . 






1743 


1816 


270 


Ozeroff 






1770 


1816 


271 


Dolgourouki 






1764 


1823 


272 


Kapniste 








1823 


271 



INDEX. 



353 



Russian Writers. 




] 


Born. 


Died. 


Page. 


Karamsin . 


. 


1826 


271 


Dmitrief 






1760 


1827 


271 


Gortshukov 






1750 


1827 


274 


Ozeretskovsk 

Griboiedoff 

Beketoff 


7 • 




1751 
1703 
1760 


1827 
1829 
1829 


274 
269 
274 


Bronevsky 
Kutusoff 






1762 
1767 


1829 
1829 


274 
274 


Izmailoff 
Melesky 
Delvig 
Zernoff 






1799 
1751 
1776 
1770 


1830 
1830 

1830 
1831 


272 
274 
274 
274 


Geloffnin 






1760 


1831 


274 


Sokoloff 






1760 


1835 


274 


Bronevsky 
Venevitinoff 






1784 
1799 


1835 

1837 


274 
274 


Vojekoff 
Sologoub 
Murlavieff 








1773 


1839 

1848 


274 
275 
271 


Kriloff 
Zhukosky 
Batiushkoff 
Labanoff 












272 
272 
272 
272 


Viskovatoff 












272 


Kokosckin 












272 


Pouschkin (Alexander) 
Krinkovsky 
Chiscbkoff . 










272 
272 
273 


Bulyarin 
Gretch 










273 
273 


Chakovsky . 
Anastasewicz 










273 
273 


Chikniatoff 










273 


Glinka 










273 


Gneditch 










273 


Katenin 










273 


Kosloff 
Khmelnitzky 
Basile Pouschkin . 










273 
273 

274 


Alexis Pouschkin 










274 


Voeykoff 
Gogol . 
Zagoskin 
Senkovsky 












274 
274 
274 
274 



354 



INDEX. 



Russian Writers 
Madame Bunina 
Zernoff 
Milonoff 
Gruodnitch 
Metrop 
Demidoff 
Ghuhovshy 
Botuschkoff 
Vaseinsky 
Baratinsky 
Bestinsoff 
Marlinski 
Odojevsky 
Dahl . 
Kuholnik 
Kulman 
Wohlbruck 
Heiberg 
Blicher 
Bernkoft 
Nabo 

Minna Von Maedler 
Adelung 
Rumanzoff 
Lajetchnikoff 
Madame Poutschoff 
Countess G-olovkin 
Madame Briaga . 
Princess Ourousoff 
Princess Volkonsky 
Princess Gralitzin ". 



Born. 



Died. 



Page. 

274 
274 
274 
274 
274 
275 
275 
274 
274 
274 
275 
275 
275 
275 
275 
275 
275 
275 
275 
275 
275 
275 
275 
275 
275 
276 
276 
276 
276 
276 
276 



THE END 



LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. 

NOW READY. 

JOHNSTONS PHYSICAL ATLAS. 

THE PHYSICAL ATLAS 

OF NATURAL PHENOMENA. 

FOR THE USE OF COLLEGES, ACADEMIES, AND FAMILIES. 

BY ALEXANDER KEITH JOHNSTON, F. R. G. S., F. G. S. 

Geographer at Edinburgh in Ordinary to her Majesty, Honorary Member 
of the Geographical Society, Berlin. 

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With Twenty-six Plates, Engraved and Colored in the best style. 

Together with 1 12 pages of Descriptive Letter-press, and a very copious Index. 
LIST OF PLATES. 



GEOLOGY. 

1. Geological Structure of the Globe. 

2. Mountain Chains of Europe and Asia. 

3. Mountain Chains of America. 

4. Illustration of the Glacier System of 

the Alps. (Mont Blanc.) 

5. Phenomena of Volcanic Action. 
Palaeontological and Geological Map of 

the British Islands. (Frontispiece.) 



HYDROGRAPHY. 

1. Physical Chart of the Atlantic Ocean. 

2. Physical Chart of the Indian Ocean. 

3. Physical Chart of the Pacific Ocean or 

Great Sea. 

4. Tidal Chart of the British Seas. 

5. The River Systems of Europe and 

Asia. 

6. The River Systems of America. 

Tidal Chart of the World. 



METEOROLOGY. 

1. Humboldt's System of Isothermal Lines. 

2. Geographical Distribution of the Cur- 
rents of Air. 

3. Hyetographic or Rain Map of the 
World. 

4. Hyetographic or Rain Map of Europe. 
NATURAL HISTORY. 

1. Geographical Distribution of Plants. 

2. Geographical Distribution of the Culti 
vated Plants used as Food. 

3. Geographical Distribution of Quadru- 
mana, Edentata, Marsupialia, and 
Pachydermata. 

4 . Geographical Distribution of Carnivora 

5. Geographical Distribution of Rodentia 
and Ruminantia. 

6. Geographical Distribution of Birds. 

7. Geographical Distribution of Reptiles 

8. Ethnographic Map of the World. 

9. Ethnographic Map of Great Britain 
and Ireland. 

This very conviction of its value would lead us to urge upon Mr. Johnston the ex 
pediency of some reduced form of his great Atlas, which might render it more access- 
ible to common readers. * * We know of no work of which ihe methods are so 
well fitted for the instruction of those who come ignorantly to the subject— Quarterly 
Review. 

To the scholar, to the student, and to the already large, yet daily increasing multi- 
tude of inquirers who cultivate natural science, the Physical Atlas is a treasure of 
incalculable value. It brings before the mind's eye, in one grand panoramic view, 
and in a form clear, definite, and easily comprehensible, all the facts at present 
known relative to the great subjects of which it treats, and may be regarded as a 
lucid epitome of a thousand scattered volumes, more or less intrinsically valuable, of 
which it contains the heart and substance.— Blackwood^s Magazine. 

By devoting a single hour to the contemplation of our globe in the diorama of a Phy- 
sical Atlas, the student will witness the grandeur of the tenement in which he dwells, 
and will not fail to appreciate the beautiful conception of Humboldt, when he speaks 
of" the life of the earth."— North British Review. 

The author avails herself with much pleasure, of an opportunity of expressing her 
admiration of the accuracy, extent, and execution of Mr. Keith Johnston's Physical 
Atlas, and of the valuable information contained in the letterpress which accompanies 
it, which has afforded her the greatest assistance. It was the author's wish, and her 
publisher's intention, that the present edition should be accompanied by a series of 
maps to illustrate the more important questions of Physical Geography treated of in 
it ; but Mr. A. Keith Johnston having announced the publication of a new edition of 
his "Physical Atlas," in a reduced size at a low price — the first two numbers of 
which have already appeared— the project was relinquished, in the belief that Mr. A. 
K. Johnston's smaller Atlas will furnish suitable illustrations to this work. — From the 
New Edition of Mrs. SomervilWs Physical Geography. 



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them, however, this is not accomplished. It is to be hoped that this defect will be 
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in the proper way. Mrs. Somerville's work may, in this respect, be pointed to as a 
model. — Taifs Edinburgh Magazine. 

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Geography, when confined to descriptions of the mere form of the earth, the height of 
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We have thus followed Mrs. Somerville through her intellectual journey over the 
globe, delighted and improved by her instructions, and anxious that others should de- 
rive from it the same pleasure and advantage. From the extracts which we have 
made, the reader will see that the work is written in a style always simple and per- 
spicuous, often vigorous and elegant, occasionally rising to a strain of eloquence, 
commensurate with the lofty ideas which it clothes. In Mrs. Somerville's pages no 
sentiments' are recorded which the Christian or philosopher disowns. In associating 
life with nature — in taking cognizance of man as tenant of the earth-home which she 
describes, her aspirations ever after truih, secular and divine, and every where through- 
out her work we meet with just and noble sentiments, the indication and the offspring 
of a highly cultivated and well ba.anced mind.— North British Review. 

From the information given, and the strength of thought displayed, on almost every 
page, the work is equally entitled to an attentive perusal. — S. Literary Messenger. 

Our praise comes lagging in the rear, and is well-nigh superfluous. But we are 
anxious to recommend to our youth the enlarged method of s'udying geography which 
her present work demonstrates to be as captivating as it is instructive. Nowhere, 
except in her own previous work, The Connexion of the Physical Sciences, is there 
to be found so large a store of well-selected information so lucidly set forth. In sur- 
veying and grouping together whatever has been seen by the eyes of others, or detect- 
ed by their laborious investigations, she is not surpassed by any one. We have no 
obscurities other than what the imperfect state of science itself involves her in ; no 
dissertations which are felt to interrupt or delay. She strings her beads distinct and 
close together. With quiet perspicacity she seizes at once whatever is most interest- 
ing and most captivating in her subject. Therefore it is we are for the book ; and we 
hold such presents as Mrs. Somerville has bestowed upon the public, to be of incalcu- 
lable value, disseminating more sound information than all the literary and scientific 
institutions will accomplish in a whole cycle of their existence. — Blackioood's Mag. 



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LIVES OF THE LORD CHANCELLORS AND KEEPERS OF THE 
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THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY, 

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" The execution of this work is equal to the conception. Great pains have been taken to make 
it both interesting and valuable."— Literary Gazette. 

" A charming work— full of interest, at once serious and pleasing."— Monsieur Guizot. 

' A most charming biographical memoir. We conclude by expressing our unqualified opinion, 
that we know of no more valuable contribution to modern liistory than this ninth volume of Mii>* 
Strickland's Lives of the Queens."— Morning Herald. 



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SCHOOL BOOKS. 



SCHMITZ AND ZUMPT'S CLASSICAL SERIES. 

VOLUME I. 

C. JUJLII C^ESARIS 

COMMENTARII DE BELLO GALLICO. 

WITH AN INTRODUCTION, NOTES, AND A GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX IN ENGLISH, 

ALSO, A MAP OF GAUL, AND ILLUSTRATIVE ENGRAVINGS. 

In one handsome 18mo. volume, extra cloth. 

This Series has been placed under the editorial management of two eminent scholars 

and practical teachers, Dr. Schmitz, Rector of the High School, Edinburgh, and Dr. 

Zumpt, Professor in the University of Berlin, and will combine the following advan- 

tages :— 

1. A gradually ascending series of School Books on a uniform plan, so as to constitute within a 
definite number, a complete Latin Curriculum. 

2. Certain arrangements in the rudimentary volumes, which will insure a fair amount of know- 
ledge in Roman literature to those who are not designed for professional life, and who therefore 
will not require to extend their studies to the advanced portion of the series. 

3. The text of each author will be such as has been constituted bv the most recent collations of 
manuscripts, and will be prefaced by biographical and critical sketches in English, that pupils may 
be made aware of the character and peculiarities of the work they are about to study. 

4. To remove difficulties, and sustain an interest in the text, explanatory notes in English will 
be placed at the foot of each page, and such comparisons drawn as may serve to unite the history 
of the past with the realities of modern times. 

5. The works, generally, will be embellished with maps and illustrative engravings, — accompani- 
ments which will greatly assist the student's comprehension of the nature of the countries and 
leading circumstances described. 

6. The respective volumes will be issued at a price considerably less than that usually charged ; 
and as the texts are from the most eminent sources, and the whole series constructed upon a de- 
terminate plan, the practice of issuing new and altered editions, which is complained of alike by 
teachers and pupils, will be altogether avoided. 

From among the testimonials which the publishers have received, they append the 
following to show that the design of the series has been fully and successfully carried 

out;— 

Central High School, Phila., June 29, 1847 
Gentlemen : — 

I have been much pleased with your edition of Caesar's Gallic Wars, being part of Schmitz and 
Zumpt's classical series for schools. The work seems happily adapted to the wants of learners. 
The notes contain much valuable information, concisely and accurately expressed, and on the points 
that really require elucidation, while at the same time the book is not rendered tiresome and ex- 
pensive by a useless array of mere learning. The text is one in high repute, and your reprint of it 
is pleasing to the eye. 1 take great pleasure in commending the publication to the attention of 
teachers. It will, I am persuaded, commend itself to all who give it a fair examination. 

Very Respectfully, Your Obt. Servt. , 

JOHN S. HART, 
To Messrs. Lea & Blanchard. Principal Phila. High School. 

Gentlemen:- June 28, I8i7. 

The edition of " Cesar's Commentaries," embraced in the Classical Section of Chambers's Edu- 
cational Course, and given to the world under the auspices of Drs. Schmitz and Zumpt has re- 
ceived from me a candid examination. I have no hesitation in saying, that the design expressed in 
the notice of the publishers, has been successfully accomplished, and that the work is well calcu- 
lated to become popular and useful. The text appears to be unexceptionable. The annotations 
embrace in condensed form such valuable information, as must not only facilitate the research of 
the scholar, but also stimulate to further inquiry, without encouraging indolence. This is an im= 
portant feature in the right prosecution of classical studies, which ought to be more generally un- 
derstood and appreciated. H. HAVERSTICK, 

Prof, of Ancient Languages, Central High School, Phila. 



VOLUME II. 

P. VIRGILII MARONIS CARMINA 

NEARLY READY. 



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BIRD'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

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ELEMENTS OF NATURAL. PHILOSOPHY, 

BEING AN EXPERIMENTAL INTRODUCTION TO THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 

ILLUSTRATED WITH OVER THREE HUNDRED WOOD-CUTS. 

BY GORING BIRD, M.D., 

Assistant Physician to Guy's Hospital. 

FROM THE THIRD LONDON EDITION. 

In one neat volume. 

" By the appearance of Dr. Bird's work, the student has now all that he can desire in one neat, 
concise, and well-digested volume. The elements of natural philosophy are explained in very sim- 
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ABNOT T'S PH YSICS. 

ELEMENTS OF PHYSICS; OR, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, 

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WRITTEN FOR UNIVERSAL USE, IN PLAIN, OR NON-TECHNICAL LANGUAGE. 

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Complete in one octavo volume, with nearly two hundred wood-cuts. 

This standard work has been long and favourably known as one of the best popular expositions 
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ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. 

BY GEORGE FOWNE S, Ph. D., 

Chemical Lecturer in the Middlesex Hospital Medical School, &c, &c. 
WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 

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BY ROBERT BRIDGES, M. D., 

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SECOND AMERICAN EDITION. 

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The character of this work is such as to recommend it to all colleges and academies in want of a 
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It may be had well bound in leather, or neatly done up in strong cloth. Its low price places it 
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BREWSTER'S OPTICS, 



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BY SIR DAVID BREWSTER. 

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BQLMAR'S FRENCH SERIES. 

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the French language. 

A SELECTION OF ONE HUNDRED PERRIN'S FABLES, 

ACCOMPANIED BY A KEY, 

Containing the text, a literal and free translation, arranged in such a manner as to 

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A COLLECTION OF COLLOQUIAL PHRASES, 

ON EVERY TOPIC NECESSARY TO MAINTAIN CONVERSATION, 
Arranged under different heads, with numerous remarks on the peculiar pronunciation 
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acquisition of a correct pronunciation of the French, in 1 vol., 18mo. 

LES AVENTURES DE TELEMAQUE PAR FENELON, 

In 1 vol., 12mo., accompanied by a Key to the first eight books, in 1 vol., 12mo., con- 
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ALL THE FRENCH VERBS, 

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PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 

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ILLUSTRATED WITH NEARLY FIVE HUNDRED AND FIFTY ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD, AND TWO 
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In one octavo volume. 
This Edition is improved by the addition of various articles, and will be found in 
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" The Physics of Muller is a work, superb, complete, unique : the greatest want known to -Eng- 
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of this contribution to the scientific records of this country may be duly estimated bv the fact, that 
the cost of the original drawings and engravings alone has exceeded the sum of 2000Z."— Lancet, 
March, 1&17. 

AN ATLAS OF ANSISNT GEOGSAPHY, 
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Late Lord Bishop of Litchfield, 

CONTAINING TWENTY-ONE COLOURED MAPS, AND A COMPLETE ACCENTUATED INDEX. 

In one octavo volume, half-bound. 

BUTLER'S AN CIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

G-EOGHAPSIIA CLASSICA, 

©R, T*t.E APPLICATION OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY TO THE CLASSICS 

BY SAMUEL BUTLER, D.D., F.R.S. 

REVISED BY HIS SON. 

FIFTH AMERICAN, FROM THE LAST LONDON EDITION, 

WITH QUESTIONS ON THE MAPS, BY JOHN FROST. 
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WHITE'S UNI VERS AL HISTORY. 

LATELY PUBLISHED, 

ELEMENTS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 

ON A NEW AND SYSTEMATIC PLAN; 

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE TREATY OF VIENNA ; TO WHICH IS ADDED, A 

SUMMARY OF THE LEADING EVENTS SINCE THAT PERIOD, FOR THE 

USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE STUDENTS. 

BIT H. WHITE, B.A., 

TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. 

WITH ADDITIONS AND QUESTIONS, 

BY JOHN S. HART, A.M., 

Principal of the Philadelphia High School, and Professor of Moral and Mental Science, <kc, &c. 
la one volume, large duodecimo, neatly bound with Maroon Backs. 

This work is arranged on a new plan, which is believed to combine the 
advantages of those formerly in use. It is divided into three parts, corre- 
sponding with Ancient, Middle, and Modern History ; which parts are again 
subdivided into centuries, so that the various events are presented in the 
order of time, while it is so arranged that the annals of each country can be 
read consecutively, thus combining the advantages of both the plans hitherto 
pursued in works of this kind. To guide the researches of the student, 
there will be found numerous synoptical tables, with remarks and sketches 
of literature, antiquities, and manners, at the great chronological epochs. 

The additions of the American editor have been principally confined to 
the chapters on the history of this country. The series of questions by him 
will be found of use to those who prefer that system of instruction. For 
those who do not, the publishers have had an edition prepared without the 
questions. 

This work has already passed through several editions, and has been 
introduced into many of the higher Schools and Academies throughout the 
country. From among numerous recommendations which they have re- 
ceived, the publishers annex the following from the Deputy Superintendent 
of Common Schools for New York : 

Secretary's Office, > State of New York. 

Department of Common Schools. 5 Albany, Oct. 14th, 1845. 

Messrs. Lea <J- Blanchard : 

Gentlemen:—! have examined the copy of "White's Universal History," which you were so 
obliging as to send me, and cheerfully and fully concur in the commendations of its value, as a com- 
prehensive and enlightened survey of the Ancient and Modern World which many of the most com- 
petent judges have, as I perceive, already bestowed upon it. It appears to me to be admirably 
adapted to the purposes of our public schools ; and I unhesitatingly approve of its introduction into 
those seminaries of elementary instruction. Veiy respectfully, your obedient servant, 

SAMUEL S. RANDALL, 
Deputy Superintendent Common Schools. 
This work is admirably calculated for District and other libraries : an edition for that pnrpose 
without questions has been prepared, done up in strong cloth. 

HERSCHELL'S ASTRONOMY. 



A TREATISE OW ASTRONOM7, 

BY SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHELL, F. B. Si, &c. 

WITH NUMEROUS PLATES AND WOOD-CUTS. 

A NEW EDITION, WITH A PREFACE AND A SERIES OF QUESTIONS, 

BY S. C. WALKER. 

In one volume, 12mo. 



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ROSCOE'S LIVES OF THE KINGS OF ENGLAND. 

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upon English history, every library ought to be provided." — Sunday Times. 



MEMOIRS OF THE LOVES OF THE POETS. 

Biographical Sketches of Women celebrated in Ancient and 

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FREDERICK THE GREAT, HIS COURT AND TIMES. 

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HISTORY OF CONGRESS, 

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MOORE'S EnEEA HP-N OW COMPLETE. 

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HISTORY OF MWAR¥™iIll^ IN 1815, 

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BY CAPTAIN W. SIBORKB, 

In one octavo volume, with Maps and Plans of Battles, &c, viz.: 

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at a quarter past 2 o'clock, P. M. 5. Field of Ligny, at half past 8 o'clock, P. M. 6. Field of Water- 
loo, at a quarter past 11 o'clock, A. M. 7. Field of Waterloo, at a quarter before 8 o'clock, P. M. 
8. Field of Waterloo, at 5 minutes past 8 o'clock, P. M. 9. Field of Wavre, at 4 o'clock, P. M., 18th 
June. 10. Field of Wavre, at 4 o'clock, A. M., 19th June. 11. Part of France, on which is shown 
the advance of the Allied Armies into the Kingdom. 

TEXT B002Z OF ECCLESIASTIC^.!. HISTORY. 

BY J. C. I GIESELER, PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN GOTTINGEN. TRANSLATED 

FROM THE THIRD GERMAN EDITION, BY F. CUNNINGHAM. 

In three octavo volumes, containing over 1200 large pages. 

ELEMENTS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 

ON A NEW AND SYSTEMATIC PLAN, FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE TREATY 

OF VIENNA, TO WHICH IS ADDED A SUMMARY OF THE LEADING 

EVENTS SINCE THAT PERIOD. 

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SIXTH AMERICAN EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS 
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HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 

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SECOND AMERICAN EDITION, 

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A few copies of the edition in four volumes, on extra fine thick paper, 
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In the course of the memoir prefixed to it, it is vindicated from the aspersions cast on it by Mr. 
Bancroft, who, nevertheless, has derived from it a vast amount of the information and documentary 
material of his own ambitious, able and extended work. It is issued in two volumes, and cannot 
fail to ficd its way to every library of any pretensions. — New York Courier and Enquirer. 

COOPER'S NAVAL HISTORY. 



HISTORY OF THE NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 

BY J. FENIMORE COOPER. 

THIRD EDITION, WITH CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS. 

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With a Portrait of the Author, Two Maps, and Portraits of Patjl Jones, Bainbridqk, 

Dale, Preble, Decatur, Porter, Perry, and McDonouuh. 



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HISTORICAL MEMOIRS OF MY OWN TIMES, 

BY SIR N. W. WRAXALL. 

ONE NEAT VOLUME, EXTRA CLOTH. 

This is the work for which, in consequence of too truthful a portraiture of Catherine II., the 
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WRAXALL'S POSTHUMOUS MEMOIRS. 



POSTHUMOUS MEMOIRS OF HIS OWN TIMES, 

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lljjplE ^iiTT m 

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MEMOIRS OF THE REIGN OF KING GEORGE THE THIRD, 

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EDITED, WITH NOTES, 

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These Memoirs comprise the first twelve years of the reign of George III. ; and recommend 
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brTwjT ^^ 

HISTORY OF THE HUGUENOTS— A NEW EDITION, 

CONTINUED TO THE PRESENT TIME. 

BY W. S. BROWNING. 
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" Not the least interesting portion of the work has reference to the violence and persecutions 
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!NG ERSOLL'S LATE WAR. 



HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE SECOND WAR BETWEEN 

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND GREAT 

BRITAIN, DECLARED BY ACT OF CONGRESS, 

JUNE 18, 1812, AND CONCLUDED BY 

PEACE, FEBRUARY 15, 1815. 

BY CHARLES J. 2NGEHSOLL, 

One volume octavo of 516 pages, embracing the events of 1812 — 1813. 

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R ?^'JTo ¥rT^ . 

MEMORANDA OF A RESIDENCE AT THE COURT OP LONDON, 

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BY HICHARB BUSH, 

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prise Professor Niebuhr's Lectures on the latter part of Roman History, so long lost to the world. 

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PK0FESS0B, RANK E'S HI STORICAL WORKS. 

HISTORY OP THE POPES, 

THEIR CHURCH AND STATE, IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 
BY LEOPOLD RANKE. 

TRANSLATED FROM THE LAST EDITION OF THE GERMAN, BY WALTER K. KELLY, ESQ., B. A. 

In two parts, paper, at §1.00 each, or one large volume, extra cloth. 

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times it describes. The best compliment that can be jpaid to Mr. Ranke, is, that each side has 
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written in too Catholic a spirit ;— the Catholics declaring, that generally impartial as he is, it is 
clear to perceive the Protestant tendency of the history." — London Times. 

THE T^S^S^^S^B^^tlS^Em^JILIiB, 

IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY AND BEGINNING OE THE SEVENTEENTH, 
BY PROFESSOR LEOPOLD RANKE. 

TRANSLATED FROM THE LAST EDITION OF THE GERMAN, BY WALTER K. KELLY, ESQ. 

Complete in one part, paper, price 75 cents. 
This work was published by the author in connexion with the " History of the Popes," under 
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be found in it. 

HISTOHY OP THE EEFOEMATION IN" GESMA2T5T, 

BY PROFESSOR LEOPOLD RANKE. 

PARTS FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD NOW READY. 

TRANSLATED FROM THE SECOND EDITION, BY SARAH AUSTIN. 

To be completed in Five parts, each part containing one volume of the London edition. 
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pold Ranke.— Indefatigable in exertions, he revels in the toil of examining archives and state 
papers : honest in purpose, he shapes his theories from evidence ; not like DAubigne, whose 
romance of the Reformation selects evidence to support preconceived theory. Ranke never forgets 
the statesman in the theologian, or the historian in the partisan." — Athenaeum. 

BROT7GXX.A.3SE @2J THE PHEl^CSS I&E^rOIitTTIOKr. 

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STUDIES OF THE LIFE OF WOMAN. 

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PHILOSOPHY IN SPORT, MADE SCIENCE IN EARNEST, 

BEING AN ATTEMPT TO ILLUSTRATE THE FIRST PRIN 

CIPLES OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, BY THE 

AID OF THE POPULAR TOYS AND 

SPORTS OF YOUTH. 

FROM THE SIXTH AND GREATLY IMPROVED LONDON EDITION. 

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tion is conveyed in an easy, graceful, yet dignified- manner, and rendered easy to the simplest under- 
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Mirror. 

ENDLESS AMUSEMENT. 

JUST ISSUED. 



ENDLESS AMUSEMENT, 

A COLLECTION OF 

NEARLY FOUR HUNDRED ENTERTAINING EXPERIMENTS 
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INCLUDING 
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MAGNETISM, MECHANICS, OPTICS, WONDERS OF THE AIR PUMP, ALL THE 
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TO WHICH IS ADDED, 

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c h eI/nsTr^^ 

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In one large royal 12mo. volume, with many Wood-Cuts, extra cloth. 

" Chemistry is assuredly one of the most useful and interesting of the natural sciences. Chemical 
changes meet us at every step, and during every season, the winds and the rain, the heat and the 
frosts, each have their peculiar and appropriate phenomena. And those who have hitherto re- 
mained insensible to these changes and unmoved amid such remarkable, and often startling re- 
sults, will lose their apathy upon reading the Chemistry of the • Four Seasons,' and be prepared to 
enjoy the highest intellectual pleasures. Conceived in a happy spirit, and written with taste and 
elegance, the essay of Mr. Griffiths cannot fail to receive the admiration of cultivated minds ; and 
those who have looked less carefully into nature's beauties, will find themselves led on step by 
step, until they realize a new intellectual being. Such works, we believe, exert a happy influence 
over society, and hence we hope that the present one may be extensively read."— The Western 
Lancet. 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 

POP ULAR SCIE NCE. 
KIRBY AND SPENCE'S E NTOMOL OGY, FOR POPULAR USE. 

AN INTRODUCTION TO ENTOMOLOaY; 

OR, ELEMENTS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF INSECTS : COMPRISING AN ACCOUNT 

OF NOXIOUS AND USEFUL INSECTS, OF THEIR METAMORPHOSES, FOOD, 

STRATAGEMS, HABITATIONS, SOCIETIES, MOTIONS, NOISES, 

HYBERNATION, INSTINCT, &c, &c. 

With Plates, Plain or Colored. 

BY WILLIAM KIRBY, M.A.,F.R.S., AND WILLIAM SPENCE,ESQ.,F.R.S. 

FROM THE SIXTH LONDON EDITION, WHICH WAS CORRECTED AND CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED. 

In one large octavo volume, extra cloth. 

" We have been greatly interested in running over the pages of this treatise. There is scarcely, in 
the wide range of natural science, a more interesting or instructive study than that of insects, or 
one than is calculated to excite more curiosity or wonder. 

" The popular form of letters is adopted by the authors in imparting a knowledge of the subject, 
which renders the work peculiarly fitted for our district school libraries, which are open to all ages 
and classes." — Hunt's Merchants' Magazine. 

JUST ISSUED. 



THE ANCIENT WORLD, OR, PICTURESQUE SKETCHES OF CREATION, 
BY D. T. ANSTED, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. 

PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON. 

In one very neat volume, fine extra cloth, with about One Hundred and Fifty Illustrations. 
The object of this work is to present to the general reader the chief results of Geological investi- 
gation in a simple and comprehensive manner. The author has avoided all minute details of geo- 
logical formations and particular observations, and has endeavoured as far as possible to present 
striking views of the wonderful results of the science, divested of its mere technicalities. The 
work is got up in a handsome manner, with numerous illustrations, and forms a neat volume for the 
centre table. 

g loTlilsTTNir^ 

WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF MINERALS. 

BY JOSHUA TRIMMER, F. G-. S. 

With two Hundred and Twelve Wood-Cuts, a handsome octavo volume, bound in embossed cloth. 

This is a systematic introduction to Mineralogy, and Geology, admirably calculated to instruct 

the student in those sciences. The organic remains of the various formations are well illustrated 

by numerous figures, which are drawn with great accuracy. 

new aFFcqIwIplITmm^ 

NOW READY. 



MEDICAL BOTANY, 

OR, A DESCRIPTION OF ALL THE MORE IMPORTANT PLANTS USED IN MEDICINE, 

AND OF THEIR PROPERTIES, USES AND MODES OF ADMINISTRATION. 

BY R. EGIiESPEIiD GRIFFITH, M.D., &c, «fcc. 

In one large octavo volume. With about three hundred and fifty Illustrations on Woo£. 

A POPULaTtREAmS? W^^GOAliTPHYSIOLOGY; 

TUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF 
POPULAR INSTRUCTION ; WITH NUMEROUS WOOD-CUTS. 

BY W. B. CARPENTER. 

In one volume, 12mo., extra cloth. 

A TREATISE ON COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, 

BY W. B. CARPENTER. 

REVISED AND MUCH IMPROVED BY THE AUTHOR. WITH BEAUTIFUL STEEL PLATES. 
(Now preparing.) 

CARPENTER'S ANIMAL PHTTSIOXiOGir, 

WITH ABOUT THREE HUNDRED WOOD-CUTS. 
(Preparhv ) 



LEA AND BLANCIIARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 

HUMAN HEALTH: 

OR, THE INFLUENCE OF ATMOSPHERE AND LOCALITY, CHANGE OF AIR AND 
CLIMATE, SEASONS, FOOD, CLOTHING, BATHING, MINERAL SPRINGS, 
EXERCISE, SLEEP, CORPOREAL AND MENTAL PUR- 
SUITS, &c, &.c, ON HEALTHY MAN, 

CONSTITUTING ELEMENTS OF HYGIENE. 

BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M.D., &c.,&c. 
In one octavo volume. 
%* Persons in the pursuit of health, as well as those who desire to retain 
it, would do well to examine this work. The author states the work has 
been prepared "to enable the general reader to understand the nature of 
the actions of various influences on human health, and assist him in adopt- 
ing such means as may tend to its preservation : hence the author has 
avoided introducing technicalities, except where they appeared to him indis- 
pensable." 

REMARKS ON THE INFLUENCE OF MENTAL EXCITEMENT, 

AND MENTAL CULTIVATION UPON HEALTH. 

BY A. BRIGHAM, IVI.D. 

Third edition ; one volume, 18mo. 

A TREATISE ON 

COBNS, BUNIONS, TES DISEASES OF THE NAILS, 

AND THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 
BY LEWIS DURLACHER, 

BURGEON CHIROPODIST TO THE QUEEN. 

In one duodecimo volume, cloth. 
BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. 

The whole complete hi 7 vols. 8vo., various bindings, 

CONTAINING : 

ROGET'S ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, in 2 vols., with many cuts. 
KIRBY ON THE HISTORY, HABITS AND INSTINCT OF ANIMALS, 1 vol., with plates. 
PROUT ON CHEMISTRY— CHALMERS ON THE MORAL CONDITION OP MAN-WHEWELL 

ON ASTRONOMY— BELL ON THE HAND— K1DD ON THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF 

MAN, 2 volumes. 
BUCKLAND'S GEOLOGY, 2 vols., with numerous plates and maps. 

Roget, Buckland, and Kirby are sold separate. 

THE DOMESTIC MANAGEMENT OF THE SICK ROOM, 

NECESSARY, IN AID OF MEDICAL TREATMENT, FOR THE CURE OF DISEASES. 

BY A. T. THOMSON, M. D., &c. &c. 

First American, from the Second London Edition. Edited hy R. E. Griffith, M. D. 

In one royal 12mo. volume, extra cloth, with cuts. 

"There is no interference with the duties of the medical attendant, but sound, sensible, and 

clear advice what to do, and how to act, so as to meet unforeseen emergencies, and co-operate 

with professional skill." — Literary Gazette. 

THE MILLWRIGHT AND MILLER'S GUIDE. 

BY OLIVER EVANS. 

THE ELEVENTH EDITION, 

WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS, BY THE PROFESSOR OF MECHA- 

NICS IN THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE OF PENNSYLVANIA, 

AND A DESCRIPTION OF AN IMPROVED MERCHANT FLOUR MILL. 

WITH ENGRAVINGS. 

BY 0. & O. EVANS, ENGINEERS. 
This is a practical work, and has had a very extended sale. 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 

JOHNSON AND LANDRETH ON FRUIT, KITCHEN, 
AND FLOW ER GA RDENING. 

A DICTIONARY OF MODERN GARDENING, 

BY GEORGE WILLIAM JOHNSON, ESQ. 

Author of the " Principles of Practical Gardening," " The Gardener's Almanac," &c. 

WITH ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY WOOD-CUTS. 
EDITED, WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS, BY DAVID LANDRETH, OP PHILADELPHIA. 

In one large royal duodecimo volume, extra cloth, of nearly Six Hundred and Fifty 
double columned Pages. 
This edition has been greatly altered from the original. Many articles of little interest to Ameri- 
cans have been curtailed or wholly omitted, and much new matter, with numerous illustrations, 
added, especially with respect to the varieties of fruit which experience has shown to be peculiarly 
adapted to our climate. Still, the editor admits that he has only followed in the path so admirably 
marked out by Mr. Johnson, to whom the chief merit of the work belongs. It has been an object 
with the editor and publishers to increase its popular character, thereby adapting it to the larger 
class of horticultural readers in this country, and they trust it will prove what they have desired it 
to be, an Encyclopaedia of Gardening, if not of Rural Affairs, so condensed and at such a price as to 
be within reach of nearly all whom those subjects interest. 

" This is a useful compendium of all that description of information which is valuable to the 
modern gardener. It quotes largely from the best standard authors, journals, and transactions of 
societies; and the labours of the American editor have fitted it for the United States, by judicious 
additions and omissions. The volume is abundantly illustrated with figures in the text, embracing 
a judicious selection of those varieties of fruits which experience has shown to be well suited to the 
United States. — Silliman's Journal. 

" This is the most valuable work we have ever seen on the subject of gardening ; and no man of 
taste who can devote even a quarter of an acre to horticulture ought to be without it. Indeed la- 
dies who merely cultivate flowers within-doors, will find this book an excellent and convenient 
counsellor. It contains one hundred and eighty wood-cut illustrations, which give a distinct idea 
of the fruits and garden-arrangements they are intended to represent. 

" Johnson's Dictionary of Gardening, edited by Landreth, is handsomely printed, well-bound, and 
Bold at a price which puts it within the reach of all who would be likely to buy it." — Evergreen. 

THE COMPLETE FLORIST. 



A m&WtJJ&.Ii OF aARDENING, 

CONTAINING PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF GREENHOUSE 

PLANTS, AND FOR THE CULTIVATION OP THE SHRUBBERY— THE FLOWER 

GARDEN, AND THE LAWN— WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THOSE PLANTS 

AND TREES MOST WORTH V OF CULTURE IN EACH 

DEPARTMENT. 

WITH ADDITIONS AND AMENDMENTS, 

ADAPTED TO THE CLIMATE OF THE UNITED STATES. 

In one small volume. Price only Twenty-five Cents. 



THE COMPLETE KITC HEN A ND FRUIT GARDENER. 

A SELECT MANUAL OF KITCHEN GARDENING, 

AND THE CULTURE OF FRUITS, 

CONTAINING FAMILIAR DIRECTIONS FOR THE MOST APPROVED PRACTICE IN EACH 

DEPARTMENT, DESCRIPTIONS OF MANY VALUABLE FRUITS, AND A 

CALENDAR OF WORK TO BE PERFORMED- EACH 

MONTH IN THE YEAR. 

THE WHOLE ADAPTED TO THE CLIMATE OF THE UNITED STATES. 

In one small volume, paper. Price only Twenty-five Cents. 

LANDRETITS RURAL REGISTER AND ALIVIANAC, FOR 1848, 

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 



STILL ON HAND, 
A FEW COPIES OF THE REGISTER FOR 1847, 

WITH OVER ONEJHUNDRED WOOD-CUTS. 

This work has 150 large 12mo. pages, double columns. Though published annually, and contain- 
ing an almanac, the principal part of the matter is of permanent utility to the horticulturist and 
farmer. 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 



LAW BOOKS. 



H ILL! A R D ON REAL ESTATE 

NOW READY. 



THE AMERICAN LAW OF REAL PROPERTY. 

SECOND EDITION, REVISED, CORRECTED, AND ENLARGED. 

BY FRANCIS HILLIARD, 

COUNSELLOR AT LAW. 

In two large octavo volumes, beautifully printed, and bound in best law sheep. 

This book is designed as a substitute for Cruise's Digest, occupying the 
same ground in American law which that work has long covered in the 
Lnglish law. It embraces all that portion of the English Law of Real 
Estate which has any applicability in this country ; and at the same time it 
embodies the statutory provisions and adjudged cases of all the States upon 
the same subject ; thereby constituting a complete elementary treatise for 
American students and practitioners. The plan of the work is such as to 
render it equally valuable in all the States, embracing, as it does, the pecu- 
liar modifications of the law alike in Massachusetts and Missouri, New 
York and Mississippi. In this edition, the statutes and decisions subse- 
quent to the former one, which are very numerous, have all been incorpo- 
rated, thus making it one-third larger than the original work, and bringing 
the view of the law upon the subject treated quite down to the present time. 
The book is recommended in the highest terms by distinguished jurists of 
different States, as will be seen by the subjoined extracts. 

" The work before us supplies this deficiency in a highly satisfactory manner. It is beyond all 
question the best work of the kind that we now have, and although we doubt whether this or any 
other work will be likely to supplant Cruise's Digest, we do not hesitate to say, that of the two, 
this is the more valuable to the American lawyer. We congratulate the author upon the success- 
ful accomplishment of the arduous task he undertook, in reducing the vast body of the American 
Law of Real Property to 'portable size,' and we do not doubt that his labours will be duly appre- 
ciated by the profession."— Law Reporter, Aug., 1846. 

Judge Story says :— "I think the work a very valuable addition to our present stock of juridical 
literature. It embraces all that part of Mr. Cruise's Digest which is most useful to American law- 
yers. But its higher value is, that it presents hi a concise, but clear and exact form, the substance 
of American Law on the same subject. 1 know no work that we possess, whose practical utility is 
likely to be so extensively felt." " The wonder is, that the autlior has been able to bring so great a 
mass into so condensed a text, at once comprehensive and lucid." 

Chancellor Kent says of the work (Commentaries, vol. ii, p. 635, note, 5th edition) :— " It is a work 
of great labour and intrinsic value." 

Hon. Rufus Choate savs:— "Mr. HilKard's work has been for three or four years in use, and 1 
think that Mr. Justice Story and Chancellor Kent express the general opinion of the Massachusetts 
Bar." 

Professor Greenleaf says :— " I had already found the first edition a very convenient book of refe- 
rence, and do not doubt, from the appearance of the second, that it is greatly improved." 

Professor J. II. Townsend, of Yale College, says :— 

" 1 have been acquainted for several years with the first edition of Mr. Hilliard's Treatise, and 
have formed a very favourable opinion of it. 1 have no doubt the second edition will be found even 
more valuable than the first, and I shall be happy to recommend it as I may hive opportunity. I 
know of no other work on the subject of Real Estate, so comprehensive and so well adapted to the 
«tate of the law in this country." 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 



LAW BOOKS. 



ADDISON ON CONTRACTS, 



A TREATISE ON THE LAW OF CONTRACTS AND 
RIGHTS AND LIABILITIES EX CONTRACTU. 

BY C. G. ADDISON, ESQ., 

Of the Inner Temple, Barrister at Law. 

In one volume, octavo, handsomely bound in law sheep. 

In this treatise upon the most constantly and frequently administered 
branch of law, the author has collected, arranged and developed in an intel- 
ligible and popular form, the rules and principles of the Law of Contracts, 
and has supported, illustrated or exemplified them by references to nearly 
four thousand adjudged cases. It comprises the Rights and Liabilities of 
Seller and Purchaser ; Landlord and Tenant ; Letter and Hirer of Chattels ; 
Borrower and Lender ; Workman and Employer ; Master, Servant and Ap- 
prentice ; Principal, Agent and Surety ; Husband and Wife ; Partners ; 
Joint Stock Companies ; Corporations ; Trustees ; Provisional Committee- 
men ; Shipowners ; Shipmasters ; Innkeepers ; Carriers ; Infants ; Luna- 
tics, &c. 

WHEATON'S INTERNATIONAL LAW. 



ELEMENTS OP INTERNATIONAL LAW. 

BY HENRY WHEATON, LL.D., 

Minister of the United States at the Court of Russia, &c. 

THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED. 

In one large and beautiful octavo volume of 650 pages, extra cloth, or fine law sheep. 

"Mr. Wheaton's work is indispensable to every diplomatist, statesman and lawyer, and necessary 
indeed to all public men. To every philosophic and liberal mind, the study must be an attractive 
and in the hands of our author it is a delightful one."— North American. 



HILL ON TRUSTEES, 



A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE LAW RELATING TO TRUSTEES, 

THEIR POWERS, DUTIES, PRIVILEGES AND LIABILITIES. 
BY JAMES HILL, ESQ., 

Of the Inner Temple, Barrister at Law. 

EDITED BY FRANCIS J. TROUBAT, 

Of the Philadelphia Bar. 

In one large octavo volume, best law sheep, raised bands. 

" The editor begs leave to iterate the observation made by the author that the work is intended 
principally for the instruction and guidance of trustees. That single feature very much enhances 
its practical value." 

ON THE PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL LAW. 

In one 18mo. volume, paper, price 25 cents. 
BEING PART 10, OF " SMALL BOOKS ON GREAT SUBJECTS " 



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LAW BOOKS. 

SPENCE'S EQUITY JURISDICTION. 



THE EQUITABLE JURISDICTION OP THE COURT OF CHANCERY, 

COMPRISING 

ITS RISE, PROGRESS AND FINAL ESTABLISHMENT. 

TO WHICH IS PREFIXED, WITH A VIEW TO THE ELUCIDATION OF THE MAIN SUB. 
JECT, A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF THE LEADING DOCTRINES OF THE COMMON 
LAW, AND OF THE COURSE OF PROCEDURE IN THE COURTS OF COM- 
MON LAW WITH REGARD TO CIVIL RIGHTS : WITH AN ATTEMPT 
TO TRACE THEM TO THEIR SOURCES ; AND IN WHICH 
THE VARIOUS ALTERATIONS MADE BY THE 
LEGISLATURE DOWN TO THE PRESENT 
DAY ARE NOTICED. 
BY GEORGE SPENCE, ESQ., 
One of her Majesty 's Counsel. 
IN TWO OCTAVO VOLUMES. 
Volume I, embracing the Principles, is now ready. Volume II. is rapidly preparing and wiU 
appear early in 1818. It is based upon the work of Mr. Maddock, brought down to the present 
time, and embracing so much of the practice as counsel are called on to advise upon. 

A STEW LAW DICTIONARY, 

CONTAINING EXPLANATIONS OF SUCH TECHNICAL TERMS AND PHRASES AS OCCUP 

IN THE WORKS OF LEGAL AUTHORS, IN THE PRACTICE OF THE COURTS, 

AND IN THE PARLIAMENTARY PROCEEDINGS OF THE HOUSE OF LORDS 

AND COMMONS, TO WHICH IS ADDED, AN OUTLINE OF AN 

ACTION AT LAW AND OF A SUIT IN EQUITY. 

BY HENRY JAB&ES EOLTHOUSE, ESQ., 

Of the Inner Temple, Special Pleader. 

EDITED FROM THE SECOND AND ENLARGED LONDON EDITION, 

WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS, 
BY HENRY FENING-TON, 

Of the Philadelphia Bar. 

In one large volume, ro3 r al 12mo., of about 500 pages, double columns, handsomely 

bound in law sheep. 

" This is a considerable improvement upon the former editions, being bound with the usual law 
binding, and the general execution admirable — the paper excellent, and the printing clear and 
beautiful. Its peculiar usefulness, however, consists in the valuable additions above referred to, 
being intelligible and well devised definitions of such phrases and technicalities as are peculiar to 
the practice in the Courts of this country. — While, therefore, we recommend it especially to the 
students of law, as a safe guide through the intricacies of their study, it will nevertheless be found 
a valuable acquisition to the library of the practitioner himself."— Alex. Gazette. 

" This work is intended rather fur the general student, than as a substitute for many abridgments, 
digests, and dictionaries in use by the professional man. Its object principally is to impress accu- 
rately and distinctly upon the mind the meaning of the technical terms of the law, and as such 
can hardly fail to be generally useful. There is much curious information to be found in it in re- 
gard to the peculiarities of the ancient Saxon law. The additions of the American edition give 
increased value to the work, and evince much accuracy and care," — Pennsylvania Law Journal. 

TAYLOH'S H13DICAL JUEISPHUDENCE. 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. 

BY ALFRED S. TAYLOR, 

Lecturer on Medical Jurisprudence and Chemistry at Guy's Hospital, London. 

With numerous Notes and Additions, and References to American Law, 

BY R. E. GRIFFITH, M.D 
In one volume, octavo, neat law sheep. 

TA"5TXjO:R?S *&£lT®T3£l1* OF TOXICOLOGY. 
IN ONE NEAT OCTAVO VOLUME. 

A NEW WORK, NOW READY. 

TBAILL'S 

OUTLINES OF A COURSE OP LECTURES ON MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. 

IN ONE SMALL OCTAVO VOLUME, 



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E A S T'S REPORTS. 



REPORTS OF CASES 

ADJUDGED AND DETERMINED IN THE COURT 
OF KING'S BENCH. 

WITH TABLES OF THE NAMES OF THE CASES AND PRINCIPAL MATTERS. 

BY EDWARD HYDE EAST, ESQ., 

Of the Inner Temple, Barrister at Law. 

EDITED, WITH NOTES AND REFERENCES, 
BY G-. M. WHARTON, ESQ., 

Of the Philadelphia Bar. 

In eight large royal octavo volumes, bound in best law sheep, raised bands and double 
titles. Price, to subscribers, only twenty-five dollars. 

In this edition of East, the sixteen volumes of the former edition have 
been compressed into eight — two volumes in one throughout — but nothing 
has been omitted ; the entire work will be found, with the notes of Mr. 
Wharton added to those of Mr. Day. The great reduction of price, (from 
$72, the price of the last edition, to $25, the subscription price of this,) 
together with the improvement in appearance, will, it is trusted, procure for 
it a ready sale. 

A NEW WORK ON COURTS-MARTIAL. 



A TREATISE ON AMERICAN MILITARY LAW, 

AND THE 

PRACTICE OF COURTS. MARTIAL, 

WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR THEIR IMPROVEMENT. 
B3Z" JOHN O'BRIEN, 

LIEUTENANT UNITED STATES ARTILLEKY. 

In one octavo volume, extra cloth, or law sheep. 

"This work stands relatively to American Military Law in the same position that Blackstone'i 
Commentaries stand to Common Law."— U. S. Gazette. 

CAMPBELL'S LORD CHANCELLORS. 



LIVES OF THE LORD CHANCELLORS AND KEEPERS OP 
THE GREAT SEAL OF ENGLAND, 

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE REIGN OF KING GEORGE IV., 

BY JOHN LORD CAMPBELL, A.M., F.R.S.E. 

FIRST SERIES, 

In three neat demy octavo volumes, extra cloth, 

BRINGING THE WORK TO THE TIME OF JAMES II., JUST ISSUED. 

PREPARING, 

SECOND SERIES, 

In four volumes, to match, 

CONTAINING FROM JAMES II. TO GEORGE IV, 



warn 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 

YOUATT AND SKINNER'S 

STANDARD WORK ON THE HORSE 



THE HOUSE. 

BY WILLIAM YOUATT. 

A NEW EDITION, WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 

TOGETHER WITH A 

GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE; 

A DISSERTATION ON 

THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE; 

HOW TRAINED AND JOCKEYED. 

AN ACCOUNT OF HIS REMARKABLE PERFORMANCES; 

AND 

AN USB Jill ON THE ASS AND THE HULE, 

BY J. S. SKINNER, 

Assistant Post-Master-General, and Editor of the Turf Register. 

This edition of Youatt's well-known and standard work on the Manage- 
ment, Diseases, and Treatment of the Horse, has already obtained such a 
wide circulation throughout the country, that the Publishers need say no- 
thing to attract to it the attention and confidence of all who keep Horses or 
are interested in their improvement. 

" In introducing this very neat edition of Youatt's well-known book, on ' The Horse,' to our 
readers, it is not necessary, even if we had time, to say anything to convince them of its worth ; it 
has been highly spoken of, by those most capable of appreciating its merits, and its appearance 
under the patronage of the 'Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,' with Lord Brougham 
at its head, affords a full guaranty for its high character. The book is a very valuable one, and we 
endorse the recommendation of the editor, that every man who owns the ' hair of a horse,' should 
have it at his elbow, to be consulted like a family physician, ' for mitigating the disorders, and pro- 
longing the life of the most interesting and useful of all domestic animals.' " — Farmer's Cabinet. 

" This celebrated work has been completely revised, and much of it almost entirely re-written 
by its able author, who, from being a practical veterinary surgeon, and withal a great lover and 
excellent judge of the animal, is particularly well qualified to write the history of the noblest of 
quadrupeds. Messrs. Lea and Blanchard of Philadelphia have republished the above work, omitting 
a few of the first pages, and have supplied their place with matter quite as valuable, and perhaps 
more interesting to the reader in this country ; it being nearly 100 pages of a general history of the 
horse, a dissertation on the American trotting horse, how trained and jockeyed, an account of his 
remarkable performances, and an essay on the Ass and Mule, by J. S. Skinner, Esq., Assistant Post- 
jnaster-General, and late editor of the Turf Register and American Farmer. Mr. Skinner is one 
of our most pleasing writers, and has been familiar with the subject of the horse from childhood, 
and we need not add that he has acquitted himself well of the task. He also takes up the import- 
ant subject, to the American breeder, of the Ass, and the Mule. This he treats at length and con 
amore. The Philadelphia edition of the Horse is a handsome octavo, with numerous wood-cuts."— 
American Agriculturist. 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 



YOUATT ON THE PIG. 



THE FIG; 

A TREATISE ON THE BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, FEEDING, 

AND MEDICAL TREATMENT OF SWINE, 

WITH DIRECTIONS FOR SALTING PORK, AND CURING BACON AND HAMS. 
BY WILLIAM YOUATT, V.S. 

Author of " The Horse," " The Dog," " Cattle," " Sheep," &c, &c. 

ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS DRAWN FROM LIFE BY WILLIAM HARVEY. 

In one handsome duodecimo volume, extra cloth, or in neat paper cover, price 50 cents. 
This work, on a subject comparatively neglected, must prove of much use to fanners, especially 
in this country, where the Pig is an animal of more importance than elsewhere. No work has 
hitherto appeared treating fully of the various breeds of swine, their diseases and cure, breeding, 
fattening, &c., and the preparation of bacon, salt pork, hams, &c., while the name of the author of 
" The Horse," " The Cattle Doctor," &c., is sufficient authority for all he may state. To render it 
more accessible to those whom it particularly interests, the publishers have prepared copies in 
neat illustrated paper covers, suitable for transmission by mail ; and which will be sent through 
the post-office on the receipt of fifty cents, free of postage. 

CLATER AND YOUATT'S CATTLE DOCTOR. 



EVERY MAN HIS OWN CATTLE DOCTOR: 

CONTAINING THE CAUSES, SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT OP ALL 
DISEASES INCIDENT TO OXEN, SHEEP AND SWINE; 

AND A SKETCH OF THE 

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF NEAT CATTLE. 

BY FRANCIS CLATER. 

EDITED, REVISED AND ALMOST RE-WRITTEN, BY 

WILLIAM YOUATT, AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE." 

WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS, 
EMBRACING AN ESSAY ON THE USE OF OXEN AND THE IMPROVEMENT IN THE 
BREED OF SHEEP, 
BY" J. S. SKINNER. 
WITH NUMEROUS CUTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
In. one 12mo. volume, cloth. 
"As its title would import, it is a most valuable work, and should be in the hands of every Ame- 
rican farmer ; and we feel proud in saying, that the value of the work has been greatly enhanced 
By the contributions of Mr. Skinner. Clater and Youatt are names treasured by the farming com- 
munities of Europe as household-gods ; nor does that of Skinner deserve to be less esteemed in 
America."— American Farmer. 



CLATER'S FARRIER 



EVERY MAN HIS OWN FARRIER: 

CONTAINING THE CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND MOST APPROVED METHODS OF CURE 
OF THE DISEASES OF HORSES. 

B-S" FRANCIS CLATER, 

Author of " Every Man his own Cattle Doctor," 

AND HIS SON, JOHN CLATER. 

FEIST AMERICAN FROM THE TWENTY-EIGHTH LONDON EDITION. 

WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS, 

BIT J. S. SKINNEB. 

In one 12mo. volume, cloth. 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 

HAWKER AND P ORTER ON SHOOTING. 

INSTRUCTIONS TO YOUNG SPORTSMEN 

IN ALL THAT RELATES TO GUNS AND SHOOTING. 
BY LIEtJT. COL. P. HAWKER. 

FROM THE ENLARGED AND IMPROVED NINTH LONDON EDITION, 

TO WHICH IS ADDED THE HUNTING AND SHOOTING OF NORTH AMERICA, WITH 

DESCRIPTIONS OF ANIMALS AND BIRDS, CAREFULLY COLLATED 

FROM AUTHENTIC SOURCES. 

BY W. T. PORTER, ESQ. 

EDITOR OF THE N. Y. SPIRIT OF THE TIMES. 

In one large octavo volume, rich extra cloth, with numerous Illustrations. 

" Here is a booh, a hand-book, or rather a text-book — one that contains the whole routine of the 
science. It is the Primer, the Lexicon, and the Homer. Everything; is here, from the minutest 
portion of a gun-lock, to a dead Buffalo. The sportsman who reads this book understanding^, may 
pass an examination. He will know the science, and may give advice to others. Every sportsman, 
and sportsmen are plentiful, should own this work. It should be a " vade mecum." He should 
be examined on its contents, and estimated by his abilities to answer. We have not been without 
treatises on the art, but hitherto they have not descended into all the minutiae of equipments and 
qualifications to proceed to the completion. This work supplies deficiencies, and completes the 
sportsman's library." — U. S. Gazette. 

"No man in the country that we wot of is so well calculated as our friend of the ' Spirit' for the 
task he has undertaken, and the result of his labours has been that he has turned out a work which 
should be in the hands of every man in the land who owns a double-barrelled gun." — N. O. Picayune. 

" A volume splendidly printed and bound, and embellished with numerous beautiful engravings, 
which will douhtless be in great demand. No sportsman, indeed, ought to be without it, while the 
general reader will find in its pages a fund of curious and useful information." — Richmond Whig. 

^rb^rATrT^^^^T^TE^lLrGT 



THE BOG-, 

BY WILLIAM YOUATT, 

Author of " The Horse," &c. 

WITH NUMEROUS AND BEAUTIFUL ILLUSTRATIONS. 

EDITED BY E. J. LEWIS, M.D. &c. &c. 

hi one beautifully printed volume, crown octavo. 

LIST OF PLATES. 

Head of Bloodhound— Ancient Greyhounds— The Thibet Dog— The Dingo, or New Holland Dog— 

The Danish or Dalmatian Dog — The Hare Indian Dog — The Greyhound — The Grecian Greyhound 

—Blenheims and Cockers— The Water Spaniel— The Poodle— The Alpine Spaniel or Bernardino 

Dog — The Newfoundland Dog — The Esquimaux Dog — The English Sheep Dog — The Scotch Sheep 

Dog— The Beagle— The Harrier— The Foxhound— Plan of Goodwood Kennel— The Southern 

Hound— The Setter— The Pointer— The Bull Dog— The Mastiff— The Terrier— Skeleton of the 

D g — Teeth of the Dog at seven different ages. 

" Mr. Youatt's work is invaluable to the student of canine history; it is full of entertaining ani 
instructive matter for the general reader. To the sportsman it commends itself by the large amount 
of useful information in reference to his peculiar pursuits which it embodies — information which 
he cannot find elsewhere in so convenient and accessible a form, and with so reliable an authority 
to entitle it to his consideration. The modest preface which Dr. Lewis has made to the American 
edition of this work scarcely does justice to the additional value he has imparted to it; and the 
publishers are entitled to great credit for the handsome manner in winch they have got it up."— 
North American. 

THE SPORTSMAN'S LZS1ARY, 

OR HINTS ON HUNTERS, HUNTING, HOUNDS, SHOOTING, GAME, DOGS, GUNS, 

FISHING, COURSING, &c, &c. 

BY JOHN MILLS, ESQ., 

Author of " The Old English Gentleman," &c. 

In one well printed royal duodecimo volume, extra cloth. 

STABLE TALK AND TAElFtALK, 

OR SPECTACLES FOR YOUNG SPORTSMEN. 

BY HARRY HIEOVER. 

In one very neat duodecimo volume, extra cloth. 

"These lively sketches answer to their title very well. Wherever Nimrod is welcome, there 

should be cordial greeting for Harry Hieover. His book is a very clever one, and contains many 

instructive hints, as well as much light-hearted reading." — Examiner. 

THE D^G^A^TB^^H^^POaT^MAN, 

EMBRACING THE USES, BREEDING, TRAINING, DISEASES, ETC., OF DOGS, AND AN 

ACCOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF GAME, WITH THEIR HABITS. 

Also, Hints to Shooters, with various useful Recipes, &c., &c« 

BY J. S. SKINNER. 

With Plates. In one very neat I2mo. volume, ?xtra cloth. 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 

FRANCATELLI'S MO DERN FRENCH COOKERY. 

THE MODERN COOK, 

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE CULINARY ART, EST ALL ITS BRANCHES, ADAPTED AS 

WELL FOR THE LARGEST ESTABLISHMENTS AS FOR THE USE 

OF PRIVATE FAMILIES. 

BY CHARLES ELME FRANCATELLI, 

Pupil of the celebrated Careme, and late Maitre D'Hotel and Chief Cook to her Majesty the Queen. 
In one large octavo volume, extra cloth, with numerous illustrations. 

" It appears to be the book of books on cookery, being a most comprehensive treatise on that art 
preservative and conservative. The work comprises, in one large and elegant octavo volume, 1447 
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tions for dinners for every month in the year, for companies of six persons to twenty-eight.— Nat. 
Intelligencer. 

" The ladies who read our Magazine, will thank us for calling attention to this great work on the 
noble science of cooking, in which everybody, who has any taste, feels a deep and abiding interest. 
Francatelli is the Plato, the Shakspeare, or the Napoleon! of his department; or perhaps the La 
Piace, for his performance bears the same relation to ordinary cook books that the Mecanique 
Celeste does to Daboll's Arithmetic. It is a large octavo, profusely illustrated, and contains every- 
thing on the philosophy of making dinners, suppers, etc., that is worth knowing.— Graham's Magazine. 

I^Tacto^^ 

MODERN COOKER? IE* ALL ITS BRANCHES, 

REDUCED TO A SYSTEM OF EASY PRACTICE. FOR THE USE OF PRrVATE FAMILIES. 

IN A SERIES OF PRACTICAL EECEIPTS, ALL OF WHICH ARE GIVEN 

WITH THE MOST MINUTE EXACTNESS. 

BY ELIZA ACTON. 

WITH NUMEROUS WOOD-CUT ILLUSTRATIONS. 
TO WHICH IS ADDED, A TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

THE WHOLE REVISED AND PREPARED FOR AMERICAN HOUSEKEEPERS. 

BY MRS. SARAH J. HALE. 

From the Second London Edition. In one large 12mo. volume. 

"Miss Eliza Acton may congratulate herself on having composed a work of great utility, and one 
that is speedily finding its way to every ' dresser' in the kingdom. Her Cookery-book is unques- 
tionably the most valuable compendium of the art that has yet been published. It strongly incul- 
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less extravagance which good cooks have been wont to imagine the best evidence they can give of 
skill in their profession."— London Morning Post. 

PLAIN AID PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR COOKING AND HOUSEKEEPING, 

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WITH ADDITIONS AND ALTERATIONS. 

BY J. M. SANDEHSON, 

OF THE FRANKLIN HOUSE. 

In one small volume, paper. Price only Twenty-five Cents. 

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PLAIN AND PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS 

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Biscuits, Cakes, Rolls, Muffins, Tarts, Pies, &c, &c. 

WITH ADDITIONS AND ALTERATIONS. 

BY PARKINSON, 

PRACTICAL CONFECTIONER, CHESTNUT STREET. 

In one small volume, paper. Price only Twenty-five Cents. 



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THERE ARE ALREADY PUBLISHED, 
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2.— ON THE CONNEXION BETWEEN PHYSIOLOGY AND INTELLECTUAL SCIENCE. 
3.— ON MAN'S POWER OVER HIMSELF, TO PREVENT OR CONTROL INSANITY. 
4.— AN INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, WITH REFER- 
ENCES TO THE WORKS OF DAVY, BRANDE, LIEBIG, &c. 
5.— A BRIEF VIEW OF GREEK PHILOSOPHY UP TO THE AGE OF PERICLES. 
6.— GREEK PHILOSOPHY FROM THE AGE OF SOCRATES TO THE COMING OF 

CHRIST. 
7.— CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE AND PRACTICE IN THE SECOND CENTURY. 
8.-AN EXPOSITION OF VULGAR AND COMMON ERRORS, ADAPTED TO THE YEAR 

OF GRACE MDCCCXLV. 
9— AN INTRODUCTION TO VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, WITH REFERENCES TO 

THE WORKS OF DE CANDOLLE, LINDLEY, &c. 
10.-ON THE PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL LAW. 
11.— CHRISTIAN SECTS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
12.— THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 
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are written in England by scholars of eminent ability, whose design is to call the attention of the 
public to various important topics, in a novel and accessible mode of publication."— N. Y. Morning 
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MACKINTOSH'S DISSERTATION ON THE PROGRESS 
OF ETHICAL PHILOSOPHY, 

WITH A PREFACE BY 

THE REV. WILLIAM WHEWELL, M. A. 
In one neat 8vo. vol., extra cloth. 

OVERLAND JOURNEY ROUND THE WORLD, 

DURING THE YEARS 1841 AND 1842, 
BY SIR GEORGE SIMPSON, 

GOVERNOR-IN-CHIEF OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY'S TERRITORIES. 

In one very neat crown octavo volume, rich extra crimson cloth, or in two 

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"A more valuable or instructive work, or one more full of perilous adventure and heroic enter- 
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" It abounds with details of the deepest interest, possesses all the charms of an exciting romanc* 
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LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 

UNITED STATES EXPLOR ING EXPEDITION. 

THE NARRATIVE OF THE 

UNITED STATES EXPLOEING EXPEDITION, 

DURING THE YEARS 1833, '39, '40, 41, AND '42. 
BY CHARLES WILKES, ESQ., U. S.N. 

COMMANDER OF THE EXPEDITION, ETC. 

PRICE TWENTY-FIVE DOLLARS. 
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Though offered at a price so low, this is the complete work, containing all the letter-press of the 
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and forms a beautiful work, with its very numerous and appropriate embellishments. 

The attention of persons forming libraries is especially directed to this work, as presenting the 
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SCHOOL and other PUBLIC LIBRARIES should not be without it, as embodying the results of 
the first Scientific Expedition commissioned by our government to explore foreign regions. 

" We have no hesitation in saying that it is destined to stand among the most enduring monu- 
ments of our national literature. Its contributions not only to every department of science, but 
every department of history, are immense ; and there is not an intelbgent man in the community — 
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ALSO, A FEW COPIES STILL ON HAND. 

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LARGE IMPERIAL QUARTO, STRONG EXTRA CLOTH. 

PRICE SIXTY DOLLARS. 



JUST ISSUED, 

THE ETHNOGRAPHY AND PHILOLOGY OF THE UNITED 
STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION, 

UNDER THE COMMAND OF CHARLES WILKES, ESQ., U. S. NAVY. 
BY HORATIO HALE, 

philologist to the expedition. 

In one large imperial octavo volume of nearly seven hundred pages. With two Maps, printed to 

match the Congress copies of the " Narrative." 

Price ten dollars, in beautiful extra cloth, done up with great strength. 

•»* This is the only edition printed, and but few are offered for sale. 

The remainder of the scientific works of the Expedition are in a state of rapid progress. The 
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lowed by the ethers. 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 



DON QUIXOTE-ILLUSTRATED EDITION 

NEARLY READY. 



DON QUIXOTE DE LA MANCHA, 

TRANSLATED FROM THE SPANISH OF 

MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDRA 

BY CHARLES JARVIS, ESQ. 

CAREFULLY REVISED AND CORRECTED, WITH A MEMOIR OF THE AUTHOR AND 
NOTICE OF HIS WORKS. 

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS, 

BY TONY JOHANNOT. 
In two beautifully printed volumes, crown octavo, rich extra crimson cloth* 

7} $/-" . ^ \ <% ./Iff 




The publishers are happy in presenting to the admirers of Don Quixote an edition of that work 
in some degree worthy of its reputation and popularity. The want of such a one has long been felt 
in this country, and in presenting this, they have only to express their hope that it may meet the 
numerous demands and inquiries. The translation is that by Jarvis, which is acknowledged supe- 
rior in both force and fidelity to all others. It has in some few instances been slightly altered to adapt 
it better to modern readers, or occasionally to suit it to the inimitable designs of Tony Johannot. 
These latter are admitted to be the only successful pictorial exponents of the wit and humor ot 
Cervantes, and a choice selection of them have been engraved in the best manner. A copious 
memoir of the author and his works has been added by the editor. The volumes are printed in 
arge clear type, on fine paper, and handsomely bound, and the whole is confidently offered as 
wormy me approbation of all readers of this imperishable romance. 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 

PICCIOLA. 

ILLUSTRATED EDITION. 

PICCIOLA, THE PRISONER OF FENESTRELLA; 

OR, CAPTIVITY CAPTIVE. 
BY X. B. SAINTINE. 

A NEW EDITION, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. 

In one elegant duodecimo volume, large type, and fine paper; price in fancy covers 

50 cents, or in beautiful extra crimson cloth. 

" Perhaps the most beautiful and touching work of fiction ever written, with the exception of 
Undine." — Atlas. 

" The same publishers have shown their patriotism, common sense, and good taste by putting 
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never was a book which better deserved the compliment. It is one of greatly superior merit to 
Paul and Virginia, and we believe it is destined to surpass that popular work of St. Pierre in popu- 
larity. It is better suited to the advanced ideas of the present age, and possesses peculiar moral 
charms in which Paul and Virginia is deficient. St. Pierre's work derived its popularity from its 
bold attack on feudal prejudices; Saintine's strikes deeper, and assails the secret infidelity which 
is the bane of modern society, in its stronghold. A thousand editions of Picciola will not be too 
many for its merit." — Lady's Book. 

" This is a little gem of its kind— a beautiful conceit, beautifully unfolded and applied. The style 
and plot of this truly charming story require no criticism ; we will only express the wish that those 
who rely on works of fiction for their intellectual food, may always find those as pure in language 
and beautiful in moral as Picciola." — New York Review. 

" The present edition is got up in beautiful style, with illustrations, and reflects credit upon the 
publishers. We recommend to those of our readers who were not fortunate enough to meet with 
Picciola some years ago, when it was first translated, and for a season all the rage, to lose no time 
in procuring it now— and to those who read it then, but do not possess a copy, to embrace the op- 
portunity of supplying themselves from the present very excellent edition."— Saturday Evening Post. 

"A new edition of this exquisite story has recently been issued by Messrs. Lea <fc Blanchard, 
embellished and illustrated in the most elegant manner. We understand that the work was com- 
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the author, giving a painful insight into the personal history of the characters who figure in the 
story." — Evening Bulletin. 

" The most charming work we have read for many a day."-— Richmond Enquirer. 

LOVER'S ROILY O'MORE. 



RORir O'HOHS-A NATIONAL ROMiiNCE, 

BY SAMUEL LOVER. 
A new and cheap edition, with Illustrations by the Author. Price only 25 cents. 
Also, a beautiful edition in royal 12mo., price 50 cents, to match the following. 
"A truly Irish, national, and characteristic story." — London Literary Gazette. 
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adventures of Rory is never once sulfered to abate. We welcome him with high delight, and 
part from him with regret." — London Sun. 

LOVER'S IRISH STORIES. 



LEGENDS AND STORIES OP IHSLAND, 

BY SAMUEL LOVER. 

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With Illustrations by the Author. 

LOVER'S SONGS AND BALLADS, 

INCLUDING THOSE OF THE "IRISH EVENINGS." 

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MARSTON, 

OR THE MEMOIRS OF A STATESMAN AND SOLDIER, 

BY THE REV. GEORGE CROLY, 
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In one octavo volume, paper, price fifty cents. 
*A work of high character and absorbing interest."— New Orleans Bee, 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 

BIOGRAPHY AND POETICAL REMAINS 

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MARGARET MILLER DAVIDSON. 
BY WASHINGTON IRVING. 

A NEW EDITION, REVISED. 



POETICAL REMAINS 

OF THE LATE 

LUCRETIA MARIA DAVIDSON. 

COLLECTED AND ARRANGED BY HER MOTHER, WITH A BIOGRAPHY BY 
MISS SEDGWICK 

A NEW EDITION, REVISED. 

SELECTIONS FROM THE 

WRITINGS OF MRS. MARGARET M. DAVIDSON, 

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WITH A PREFACE BY MISS SEDGWICK. 

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THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS, 

WITH ILLUSTRATIVE POETRY; TO WHICH ARE NOW ADDED THE 
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SEVENTH AMERICAN, FROM THE NINTH LONDON EDITION. 

Revised by the Editor of the "Forget-Me-Not." 
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RELIGIO MEDIC!, AND ITS SEQUEL, CHRISTIAN MORALS, 

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COOPER'S LEATHER STOCKING TALES, 

In five neat volumes, royal 12mo., extra cloth. 



LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 






BOY'S TREA SURY OF SPORTS. 

THE ROT'S TREASURY Of SPORTS, PASTIMES AND RECREATIONS. 

WITH FOUR HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS, 
BY SA3VEUEL WILLIAMS. 

IS NOW READY. 

In one very neat volume, bound in extra crimson cloth; handsomely printed and 

illustrated with engravings in the first style of art, and containing 

about six hundred and fifty articles. A present for all seasons. 




PREFACE. 

This illustrated Manual of" Sports, Pastimes, and Recreations," has been prepared with especial 
regard to the Health, Exercise, and Rational Enjoyment of the young readers to whom it is ad- 



"« 



Every variety of commendable Recreation will be found in the following pages. First, you have 
the little Toys of the Nursery; the Tops and Marbles of the Play-ground; and the Bails of the 
Play-room, or the smooth Lawn. 

Then, you have a number of Pastimes that serve to gladden the fireside ; to light up many faces 

■>,ht joyfully, and make the parlour re-echo with mirth. 

Next, come the Exercising Sports of the Field, the Green, and the Play-ground ; followed by 
the noble and truly English game of Cricket. 

Gymnastics are next admitted ; then, the delightful recreation of Swimming ; and the healthful 
sport of Skating. 

Archery, once the pride of England, is then detailed ; and very properly followed by Instructions 
in the graceful accomplishment of Fencing, and the manly and enlivening exercise of Riding. 

Angling, the pastime of childhood, boyhood, manhood, and old age, is next described ; and by 
attention to the instructions here laid down, the lad with a stick and a string may soon become an 
expert Angler. 

Keeping Animals is a favourite pursuit of boyhood. Accordingly, we have described how to rear 
the Rabbit, the Squirrel, the Dormouse, the Guinea Pig, the Pigeon, and the Silkworm. A long 
chapter is adapted to the rearing of Song Birds ; the several varieties of which, and their respective 
cages, are next described. And here we may hint, that kindness to Animals invariably denotes an 
excellent disposition ; for, to pet a little creature one hour, and to treat it harshly the next, marks 
a capricious if not a cruel temper. Humanity is a jewel, which every boy should be proud to wear 
in his breast. 

We now approach the more sedate amusements— as Draughts and Chess ; two of the noblest 
exercises of the ingenuity of the human mind. Dominoes and Bagatelle follow. With a know- 
ledge of these four games, who would pass a dull hour in the dreariest day of winter ; or who 
would sit idly by the fire 1 

Amusements in Arithmetic, harmless Legerdemain, or .sleight-of-hand, and Tricks with Cards, 
will delight many a family circle, when the business of the day is over, and the book is laid aside. 

Although the present volume is a book of amusements, Science has not been excluded from its 
pages. And why should it be 1 when Science is as entertaining as a fairy tale. The changes we 
read of in little nursery-books are not more amusing than the changes in Chemistry, Optics, Elec- 
tricity, Magnetism, &c. By understanding these, you may almost become a little Magician. 

Toy Balloons and Paper Fireworks, (or Fireworks without Fire,) come next. Then follow In- 
structions for Modelling in Card-Board; so that you may huild for yourself a palace or a carriage, 
and, in short, make for yourself a little paper world. 

Puzzles and Paradoxes, Enigmas and Riddles, and Talking with the Fingers, next make up plenty 
of exercise for " Guess," and " Guess again." And as you have the " Keys" in your own hand, yoa 
may keep your friends in suspense, and make yourself as mysterious as the Sphynx. 

A chapter of Miscellanies— useful and amusing secrets— winds up the volume. 

The " Treasury" contains upwards of four hundred Engravings ; so that it is not only a collection 
of " secrets worth knowing," but it is a book of pictures, as full pf prints as a Christmas pudding 
is of plums. 

It maybe as well to mention that the "Treasury" holds many new games that have never 
before been printed in a book of this kind. The old games have been described afresh. Thus it 
is, altogether, a new book. 

And now we take leave, wishing you many hours, and days, and weeks of enjoyment over these 
pages ; and we hope that you may be as happy as this book is brimful of amusement. 



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